Conduct of a Battle

Battles could involve thousands of men and when it started large dustclouds would be conjured up, especially in the northern regions, so methods of controlling troops needed to be highly developed. A large variety of flags were used, both for signalling and for raising morale; divisions and commanders were distinguished by flags, and each unit was identified by smaller banners of a different colour. Movements to the right or left were indicated by flags, while drums signalled the advance and bells the retreat. Four beats of a drum signified 'prepare for action', and five the commencement of a march. During the advance of a champion into single combat, trumpet horns were used to inspire one's own side. Drums, horns and gongs were also used for psychological warfare, inspiring their own side and terrifying the enemy, and the generation of the maximum amount of noise was considered essential to a successful charge. It is unlikely that gunpowder for signalling would had been used at this early date.

The Sanguo Zhi gives many examples of solitary charges by commanders. In this way the structure and fighting techniques of armies were based on small groups of loyal followers of individual commanders. In action, the commander and his followers acted as a spearhead for a drive at the enemy array. The enemy would do best to form a firm wall, but if the commander was successful the wall would break and the other parts of his army could fan out to attack the fleeing flanks. This reliance on mass and concentration is akin to the methods used in the European Dark Ages and is the natural tactic for an ill-disciplined army. Such battles would be over quite quickly but could last half a day. If the leader was killed or badly injured then the fighting spirit would fall and his side would have to abandon the battle, usually with heavy losses.

It is tempting to assume that all armies of the Three Kingdoms were mere mobs and battles disorganised melees, but this is not necessarily true. As time went on armies became more disciplined, not withstanding the small ranks of professional soldiers in existence from the very beginning. The feint and ambush was a favourite tactic of commanders on all sides and could not be made possible without centralised control and coordination. This tactic could also only be countered by discipline. If an enemy feinted, a high amount of control was needed to break off the advance of excited footsoldiers even when the attack is temptingly successful, and preserve formation. From various sources in the Sanguo Zhi we know that this is the case in a number of circumstances and is indeed an impressive performance with the command technology at the time.