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Introduction
Roman military technique and technology was not an
indigenous invention but an adaptation and evolution of the
knowledge of other civilizations. The success of Roman warfare
methods and equipment is plainly seen from the fact that not only
did they command a large empire of ever-increasing area, they also
managed to keep their kingdom united until the 5th century CE - a
task which could not be fulfilled even by the Greeks. During the
first period of its history, Rome was an empire in the making,
establishing its own territory and fending off aggression. During
this time its leadership frequently changed hands, resulting in
changing trends in military technology.
The Rise of Rome
In the time of Romulus (the founder of Rome), the weaponry seems
to be spears, daggers, swords and axes. Only the rich wore armour.
Shields were mainly held at the centre and varied greatly in size.
Swords were made of bronze, as were spearheads. Early helmets mainly
covered the scalp, leaving the face unprotected. Body armour
consisted of small bronze breastplates used on the chest and back.
As time passed Rome came under the influence of the Etruscans
(6th century BCE), the hill peoples of central Italy (5th century),
the Samnites and the Celts (4th century). The Etruscans used similar
techniques as the Greeks for their armies. The Hill peoples -the
Aequi and Volsci - used iron-backed bronze disc breastplates,
helmets with wide rims and elaborate swords adopted from the
Etruscans. The Samnites developed a new form of breastplate,
triangular in shape and embossed with three discs.
The Roman Empire (after 160 BCE)
By the end of the 2nd century, Rome had conquered Macedonia and
was on its way to becoming an empire. Finally the Roman army had an
identity of its own.
Armour and shields: Infantry in the Roman army used the scutum -
a curved shield four feet long and over two metres wide. It was made
of strips of wood laminated in three layers, the alignment of the
strips alternating between lengthwise and crosswise. The shield was
covered in wool and had an iron rim. The armour consisted of a small
20-cm square breastplate. Richer commanders used chain mail for
greater flexibility.
Towards the beginning of the Common Era, a new form of body
armour was developed - the flexible plate armour. It was constructed
of iron segments joined either with hooks or with straps to ensure
flexibility. The scutum was also made lighter and covered with
leather.
Weapons: Heavy infantry were armed with a short, double-edged
sword about 50 cm long. They also carried javelins whose iron head
was about a metre long.
Siege Warfare
Early records of Roman siege technique occur from
the 3rd century BCE. The early Romans used mainly overwhelming
manpower and battering rams to conquer towns. Once inside, they
committed atrocities on the people as a form of psychological
warfare  to discourage them from retaliating. In this regard they
took the help of bolt-shooters and stone throwers, some of which
flung 40 kg boulders. The design was similar to the earlier Greek
ones. The significant advances in Roman
siege equipment came about not for conquering new territory, but for
protecting their outposts. One was the ballista - a torsion device
in which a string drawn between two armies mounted on springs of
twisted rope or sinews was used to fire bolts. The other was the
‘scorpion’, which had one arm that fired stones, again using a
torsion spring for power.
Sea Warfare
Early Roman warships were built to counter the
threat from the Carthaginians whose powerful navy granted them
control over the west Mediterranean. In fact, the first Roman ships
were based on a Carthaginian warship that ran aground on a reef. To
counter the opposition’s superiority in naval warfare, the first
Roman ships had a device called the corvus. It was essentially a
boarding plank with a spike at its end. When swung onto the deck of
the enemy ship, the spike stuck fast allowing Roman soldiers to
board the ship. Thus the stand-off was transformed into a fight
between soldiers which the Romans with their superior army won
easily.1
1. Peter Connolly, "Greece and Rome at War", (MacDonald
Phoebus Ltd., 1981), p. 273.
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Warfare
