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PERSPECTIVE

Who is an Aborigine?
"An Aborigine is a person of Aboriginal or Torres Strait Island descent who identifies and is accepted as such by the community with which he or she is associated." A person is only an Aborigine if they are accepted by an Aboriginal group and recognized as an Aborigine. This transcends physical characteristics such as appearance, background and location. It should be mentioned that terms like "half caste", "part Aboriginal" or "full blood" are unacceptable, as they may be insulting to Aborigines. (Education Department, 1988:14-15)

Aboriginal people have asked us to recommend the following use of words: - Aborigine as singular noun - Aborigines as plural noun - Aboriginal as the adjective In practice it is preferred that terms like Aboriginal people rather then Aborigines be used, and Aboriginal artefacts instead of arts and crafts of the Aborigines. (Education Department of SA, 1988, p15)

Aboriginal Groups
Aboriginal groups lived all around Australia and as a result of their geographical differences they lived according to the resources available to them. For example coastal inhabitants lived different lifestyles to those who lived inland in the more desert areas. Every Aboriginal group has a separate identity and it would be incorrect to say that all Aborigines lived a certain way. In fact some groups prefer to be called by their individual groups names than just "Aborigine".

It would be incorrect to talk about them in general terms. It's similar to generalizations about Europeans when in fact the Germans and the Italians may live completely different lifestyles. Aborigines used to be classified into one language group, which is incorrect. There are approximately 250 language groups Australia wide and 54 groups in South Australia alone. It is also incorrect to call these groups "tribes" as it does not describe their society accurately. Instead the term "group" is used.

The modern map of Australia is not an accurate representation of the group localities as the present borders were imposed by Europeans. Instead the "Aboriginal boundaries" can be arranged using natural features. See Map

The major cultural groups represented in South Australia are: - The Western Desert Cultural Region -The South Australian Gulf Cultural Region - Lake Eyre Cultural Region - Murray Darling(Part of Riverina) Cultural Region - South East Coast Cultural Region The cultures in these regions are often very similar with only slight variations in lifestyle and dialect. It was common for these groups to trade amongst them selves which enhanced the similarities among the groups. See Map

See Map

These language groups are classified into 5 distinct cultural groups that each have their unique technology and lifestyle. These groups lived according to their the environment and the resources available. We have decided to focus on the Adnyamathanha groups which means 'hills or rock people'. They consist of a number of groups (11, 12, 29, 31). These groups are situated in South Australia around the northern Flinders Ranges. In the past it was thought that there was once a separate group called Adnyamathanha but after the arrival of the Europeans the groups around the northern Flinders Ranges suffered a population decline. Now the name 'Adnyamathanha' has come to refer to all the groups of the northern Flinders Ranges. In the early 1900's it was noted that the elders of groups could speak more than one dialect. Over a period of time one language dominated and this language is know as Yua Ngawarla (Adnyamathanha language). It was noted that some of the vocabulary corresponded to those of other groups. The Flinders Ranges contains some of Australia's most beautiful landscape and is located a few hundred kilometres above the City of Adelaide.

Aboriginal History in General
Before the Europeans came to Australia in 1788 it is now estimated there were approximately over 600 groups of Aborigines. These groups all had their own distinct dialects and individual cultural identities.. European settlement had profound effects on every Aboriginal group in Australia. Many people believe that had they been permitted to remain as they were, these groups would have had status equivalent to individual countries with separate languages such as those that make up Europe. However their progress was terminated by the British attempt to incorporate Australia into the British Empire.

To the majority, 1788 marks the beginning of Modern Australian History, however, to many Aborigines it marked the beginning of the European invasion. The Aborigines were expected to integrate into the European ways swiftly and unquestioningly. With the Europeans came diseases to which they had no immunity and as a result many Aborigines died. Aborigines also encountered social attitudes they could not understand. They were also introduced to fire arms, alcohol, cigarettes and other devices that bought premature death.

This sudden exposure to the social evils of the western world proved destructive to the Aborigines whose cultural aim was to live in harmony with each other and the land Soon the Aborigines became foreigners in their own land. The European settlers assumed supreme authority over everything and everyone on the land and they treated the Aborigines badly. Aborigines were unable to access sacred sites or continue hunting the animals.

The Aborigines were the victims of merciless discrimination as their lifestyle was condemned and ridiculed. Since it was assumed that they were inferior and 'incapable', missions were established to keep Aborigines away from society where they were closely supervised at all times. The missionaries claimed it was to protect them from the Europeans, however these missions resembled concentration camps. No unauthorized people could leave or enter these sites. The missions also had locked hospitals that were separate to the ones used by the general public.

The missions forced the Aboriginal people to speak and dress like the Europeans. They were intent on destroying the Aboriginal society and ultimately they wanted the Aborigines to forget their traditional culture. The popular mentality was that the Aboriginal blood would die out or would be diluted as much as possible. Later Aboriginal babies were taken away from their families to live with 'white Australians' in the hope that they would forget their past and integrate into the 'white world'. The 'white' Australians were given power to control possessions of the Aborigines such as land.

At first they were not allowed into cafes, boarding houses, hotels, certain shops, hospitals, theatres, churches dances and social functions. This wasn't a matter of money but rather the idea that Aborigines were 'uncivilized'. In some places there was also a curfew where they were not allowed to remain in town after a certain hour. There were many restrictions on their education, health aids, land ownership and employment opportunities and many times they were treated unequally before the law.

As the 20th century progressed various acts have been passed to prevent discrimination. It was only in the last twenty to thirty years that Aborigines first began to be recognized as Australian citizens after the 1967 referendum. This was where the majority agreed that Aborigines should begin to get the same freedom experienced by ordinary Australians. Despite this, Aborigines continued to be discriminated against but never the less, they gained more control over their lives. It was only in the past few decades that Aborigines could experience an improved sense of equality through better residential schemes, employment aid, job training, support groups and education. A fraction of the land has also been given back to the Aboriginal people and with reconciliation they hope to improve attitudes between various cultural groups. A large number of the Australian population have pushed for reconciliation, a process which consists of documents that encourage nation wide projects that aim for harmony between indigenous and non indigenous Australians.

Adnyamathanha History
Prior to the arrival of the first Europeans it is believed that the Adnyamathanha people had already been exposed to contagious diseases such as small pox. Many people believe that the Macassan traders, who sailed from the Indonesian islands to northern Australia, were the first to introduce diseases to the Australian continent.

The first Europeans to travel through Adnyamathanha lands were Edward John Eyre and his exploration party in 1840. Such was the shock of seeing Europeans for the first time that Adnyamathanha people first thought they were white skinned spirits. Many Aborigines hid and watched the group at a distance as they were very cautious. In his report of this exploration, Eyre wrote that he encountered little conflict with the Adnyamathanha people but there were incidents that caused tensions. For example when the exploration party were running out of water one of his overseers kidnapped an Adnyamathanha woman to question her about local water sources. As a result, the camp was surrounded by Aboriginal people who "..repeatedly exhibited signs of defiance, such as throwing dust into the air, shouting and threatening with their weapons." (Eyre, E.J. in Education Department of South Australia, 1992: 128)

After a few years, European settlers started to move into the Flinders Ranges and they bought with them odd animals and goods which were alien to the Adnyamathanha. They were warned beforehand of the Europeans by message sticks from other Aboriginal groups, so many went into hiding. Adnyamathanha people observed the goods which the Europeans had bought with them and saw how useful these goods were. Eventually the barrier of caution between the Aborigines and the Europeans broke down.

After a few years, European settlers started to move into the Flinders Ranges and they bought with them odd animals and goods which were alien to the Adnyamathanha. They were warned beforehand of the Europeans by message sticks from other Aboriginal groups, so many went into hiding. Adnyamathanha people observed the goods which the Europeans had bought with them and saw how useful these goods were. Eventually the barrier of caution between the Aborigines and the Europeans broke down.

The settlement of land in South Australia was first planned by private individuals in Britain who came together with the intention of selling the land to other settlers. For this to work, they had to have the support of the British government to make it legal. Finally, in 1834 an act was passed which established South Australia as a colony. This act "declared Aboriginal lands to be 'waste and unoccupied'." (Education Department of South Australia, 1992: 134) With this act, British citizens were able to buy any land they wanted. After the act was passed, English humanitarian groups protested that the rights of the Aborigines should be protected. This protest was a success and in 1835, Lord Glenelg proposed a scheme so that the Aborigines would at least be compensated for their land. This proposal made the Board of Colonisation Commissioners uneasy because they thought that the sale of lands would stop and result in economic failure. "A protector was appointed to protect Aboriginal people against violence, to provide sustenance, shelter, education and Christian instruction, but the protector was given no control over land sale." (Education Department of South Australia, 1992: 134) After the act was passed, a set of Government regulations, called Letters Patent, were made stating how the Act would be applied in the colonisation of South Australia.

The Letters Patent was designed to give some protection to the Aboriginal people, but groups such as the settlers and authorities, ignored these rules.The European settlers did not understand the Aboriginal system of land ownership and so the Aboriginal claim to the land was not recognized. The Europeans maintained that there were no territorial rights among the Aborigines. Tensions between the indigenous people and the settlers mainly arose from land disputes.

The Adnyamathanha saw the Europeans as invaders when they began to settle in the area in the 1840s. The Adnyamthanha people tried to resist the invaders but this was met with police authority and gradually the resistance ended. The early settlers did not consider the possibility that they were taking over the Aboriginal land and that the livestock they bought with them were destroying Adnyamathanha food sources and water-holes. This attitude caused much conflict between the two main groups. The Aborigines had completely different value systems to that of the Europeans which was enhanced by cultural and language difficulties. For example, keeping livestock was essential for Europeans as it often dictated their place in society whereas the Aborigines regarded animals as descendants of the Dreaming. The Adnyamathanha food sources were being replaced by live stock and so the Adnyamathanha began to live off these animals which caused resentment among the Europeans. The Aborigines were often physically abused and prosecuted. More and more pastoralists settled in the Blinders Ranges bringing with them more cattle and sheep which caused more clashes between the two groups. By the 1850s, the settlers were using guns to ward off the Adnyamathanha who were often shot on the spot. This caused further tension among the Aboriginal groups as certain people in the kinship had to avenge the deaths. During the first few years of European settlement, the Adnyamathanha community decreased in numbers dramatically.

As settlement increased around the Blinders Ranges, so did the conflict. It was common for the workers to rape the Adnyamathanha women and they often kept the Adnyamathanha away from vital sources of food and water which were instead reserved for their cattle and sheep. Stories of conflict between the settlers and the Aborigines have been passed down and some of these stories tell of violence, and in some cases massacres. Many times the bodies of men, women and children were mutilated and according to Adnyamathanha custom, revenge was sought. This however often ended up in greater misfortunes. Many Aborigines were too frightened to speak of these events again. Eventually the police were bought into the Blinders Ranges and the Adnyamathanha were forced into submission. The police supplied rations to the Adnyamathanha which led to their dependence on the European community. By this time the Adnyamathanha were in a vulnerable position, especially as the Europeans did not acknowledge their ownership of land and other assets. The drought in the 1860s affected the Adnyamathanha severely, especially as food and water were carefully watched over by the Europeans. The Adnyamathanha group managed to survive despite the obstacles of the earlier years. By the 1860s, initial conflict between the Adnyamthanha and the Europeans lessened and the Adnyamathanha became more involved with the Europeans as many began to work in the pastoral industry. Because of this, parts of the Adnyamathanha culture were able to be preserved. By 1866 there was already talk of Aboriginal land rights for the Adnyamthanha and it seemed they had the support of a South Australian newspaper which was a rare stance during those times. The government ignored these public demands and they sent more rations to the Flinders Ranges. These rations did not match the level of nutrition that the Adnyamthanha were used to receiving from bush tucker and as a result their health deteriorated.

During this time of European settlement, the Adnyamathanha found it increasingly difficult to continue with traditional ceremonies. Although traditional Aboriginal ceremonies continued, many of their routes and use of resources created conflict with the Europeans. For example, a traditional ceremony involved travelling to the ochre mines to collect ochre. This trip was important for the initiation process of Aborigines around the area of the Northern regions. This trip also renewed their ties with their ancestors and helped to maintain the Dreaming trails. Eventually these trips to the ochre mines became relatively peaceful as ration depots were established to decrease the number of livestock being killed for food. Sometimes the Aborigines received free train travel if there was a spare car. In some ways this was seen as a compensation for the shortage of food and water supply. The ochre mines was eventually made an Aboriginal reserve. Much of the traditional Aboriginal culture was maintained until the 1920s and red ochre was used in ceremonies until the 1940s. Red ochre and the ochre mines are still of great significance to the Adnyamathanha people today.

All this time the Europeans though of themselves as superior to the Aborigines and the popular mentality was that the Aborigines were a dying race. They tried to integrate the Aborigines into the European society. Several attempts were made to put the Adnyamathanha children into mission stations but many times they were faced with strong resistance. Pastoralists, who tried to maintain peace with the Aborigines, were usually the link between the Europeans and the Adnyamthanha. However, pastoralists often used the Adnyamathanha as cheap labour and often supplied them with tobacco and alcohol in return. The Europeans often had advantages in many of the conflict with the Aborigines, especially as the law was often hard on them. Another drought occurred in the 1890s which led to starvation among Adnyamathanha people despite the increase of ration depots. These rations were given freely to the old, sick and women with children, but others were required to work for them.

Gradually as the years passed many Adnyamathanha moved to the south and lost a lot of their heritage. There were many attempts to spread the Christian beliefs to the Aboriginal communities and this was another source of conflict between the two groups. Eventually children were sent to schools which were run by the Europeans and many adopted European ways. Some Aborigines fought in the Second World War but most stayed behind to look after the pastoral industry. By the 1950s the initiations had stopped. The Adnyamathanha group survived better than other Aboriginal groups in the state of South Australia because despite the many obstacles they faced, they were successful in maintaining a lot of their culture and tradition. In 1962 education for the Adnyamathanha people improved, as the schools were equipped with fully trained teachers. Families continued to work on the stations, but the Adnyamathanha group only gathered for important occasions. Various government acts were passed that affected the Adnyamathanha, one of which was the assimilation policy that aimed to "merge" the Aboriginal people with the white Australians. The Aborigines suffered from the prejudice of the white Australians and were often discriminated against. It has only been in the last few decades that Adnyamathanha organisations have been set up. However as we head towards the future, indigenous and non-indigenous Australians are striving for reconciliation.

Reconciliation
The Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation first met in 1992 to build bridges for a better understanding between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and the wider Australian community. The Council, which was set up by the Federal Parliament has 25 members - 12 are Aboriginal, two are Torres Strait Islanders and 11 are from the wider community. All major political groups are represented on the Council which has adopted the following as its vision: 'A united Australia which respects this land of ours; values the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage; and provides justice and equity for all.' The Council believes that eight issues are an essential part of the reconciliation process.

Aboriginal Reconciliation involves 8 Key Iissues that need to be addressed:
1) Land and Seas, understanding the country-the importance of land and sea in Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander societies,
2) Improving relationships between Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples and the wider Australian community,
3) Valuing cultures,
4) Sharing histories,
5) Addressing disadvantage,
6) Custody levels of indigenous people,
7) Greater opportunity for Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples to control their destinies
8) Formal agreement on whether the process of reconciliation would be advanced by a document or documents of reconciliation.
(Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation 1999)

For more information about the Key Issues or any other information regarding Aboriginal Reconciliation please write to: Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation 3-5 National Circuit BARTON ACT 2600 Telephone: (02) 62715120 Facsimile: (02) 62715168

Internet homepage address: http://www.austlii.edu.au/car/ Email: car@dpmc.gov.au Reference: Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation, 2000, Reconciliation and its Key Issues, CAR, ACT.

Declaration for Reconciliation
Speaking with one voice, we the people of Australia, of many origins as we are, make a commitment to go on together recognising the gift of one another's presence. We value the unique status of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples as the original owners and custodians of traditional lands and waters. We respect and recognise continuing customary laws, beliefs and traditions. And through the land and its first peoples, we may taste this spirituality and rejoice in its grandeur.

We acknowledge this land was colonised without the consent of the original inhabitants.

Our nation must have the courage to own the truth, to heal the wounds of its past so that we can move on together at peace with ourselves.

And so we take this step: as one part of the nation expresses its sorrow and profoundly regrets the injustices of the past, so the other part accepts the apology and forgives.

Our new journey then begins. We must learn our shared history, walk together and grow together to enrich our understanding.

We desire a future where all Australians enjoy equal rights and share opportunities and responsibilities according to their aspirations.

And so, we pledge ourselves to stop injustice, address disadvantage and respect the right of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples to determine their own destinies.

Therefore, we stand proud as a united Australia that respects this land of ours, values the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander heritage, and provides justice and equity for all. (Council for Aboriginal Reconciliation, 1999).

The Flag
In 1971, Harold Thomas who is an Aboriginal and an Arrente artist, designed the Aboriginal flag. He noticed that at campaigns, which were for fighting for Aboriginal people's land rights, the number of non-Aboriginal people's signs dominated over the Aboriginal people's banners. He said, "We need a common symbol to march with, as blacks together in unity, and something we could be proud of." (Northern land Council, 2000).

The purpose of designing this flag was to have a sign that displayed Aboriginal identity. The gold represents the sun, which the Aboriginal people believe to be the giver of life, the black represents the Aboriginal people, and the red represents the land and their spiritual connection to the land.

It was first flown on 12 July 1971 on National Aboriginal Day in Victoria Square, which is in Adelaide. In 1972, the Aboriginal people and the Torres Strait Islanders accepted the flag nationally when it was raised over the Aboriginal "Tent Embassy", situated outside of the old Parliament House in Canberra. See Image

Much of Aboriginal history and tradition were taught by oral communication and a large portion of their culture disappeared with the deaths of hundreds of Aborigines. The Aboriginal groups that we see today are those which survived the 'European invasion' and the remains of their culture can still be seen. Many people have tried to rebuild these cultures and keep it alive for the future generations.

In order to understand Aborigines today it is important to understand their traditional culture, as it is their culture which makes up their essence and provides a foundation for their current identity. It is a link to over 40,000 years of heritage.

Origins
Aboriginal people lived settled lifestyles in lush country or moved periodically as conditions necessitated. They exercised animal husbandry through the practice of fire stick farming, where they systematically burnt the land using complex rules to encourage particular vegetation or animals. Many groups shared common features in their lifestyle and material culture. They had similar social organizations and complex religious ideas which linked the people with the land through totemic beliefs. Their culture bears striking resemblance to the culture of other indigenous peoples, such as the Native American Indians.

Aborigines have been living in Australia for a long period of time. However there are varying beliefs about their origins. Aboriginal people themselves believe that they have always been there and sprang from the land. Their evidence lies in their oral history which they call the Dreaming that have been passed down for thousands of years. Western scientific evidence is continually pushing back the provable date of Aboriginal existence. The earliest data available suggests that fire stick farming was practised 120,000 years ago! (Jonas, B., et al, 1994:40)

Scientific Views
Western experts suggest the Aborigines migrated from the northern countries (i.e.. Asia) during an Ice Age when the seas iced over. This caused the continental boundaries to expand while reducing ocean barriers and consequently made it easier for animals and early humans to travel from continent to continent. During the last ice age it has been estimated that the water levels were 150 metres lower than they are now.

When the ice melted, seas began covering much of the land, flooding valleys and hunting grounds. This corresponds with the Aboriginal Dreaming which has been passed on through many generations.

The Dreaming also records changes in the environment and sea levels which scientific evidence can now collaborate.

However scientists admit that compared to other civilizations not much evidence has survived in Australia. After piecing together information they have found out about: the changes in climate, sea levels, temperature, fossils of flora and fauna, chemical composition of the soil, ancient artefacts such as hunting and gathering equipment, art works and human remains. Through this information scientists are able draw conclusions about the chronology of Aboriginal society.

Experts have been able to date evidence from over forty sites in South Australia (including the Adnyamathanha lands) and they have also been able to mark the distinct phases of technology that appeared over periods of time. The oldest verifiable scientific dating of Aboriginal antiquity in Australia reaches back almost 60,000 years However that is not to say that Aborigines have not been in Australia for longer. None the less it is an incredibly long time, perhaps older than the American continents.

Dreamings
A common characteristic of Aboriginal groups is their similar belief systems called the Dreaming. It is a rough translation of their religious system but it does not always convey its due merits. However in a way it is accurate as they received a sense of enlightenment through visions and dreams. The Dreaming is equivalent to other religions around the world, though it plays a more central role in the lives of Aborigines. Various Aboriginal groups all have different names for the Dreaming.

The Adnyamathanha called their Dreaming stories 'Muda'.

The Dreaming stories teach moral values which are passed down to other generations. They teach many things such as:

• the importance of harmony with the environment,
• how the world was created,
• the code for living,
• responsibility for the land,
• their culture,
• instructions on how people should act.

The Dreamtime refers to a time in the far distant past when the land was flat, dark and empty. Dreaming stories feature Dreamtime beings who all had different names and could acquire different forms: both human and animal. As these beings moved through the land they created geographical features such as rivers, hills, rocks, flowers and other wonders of the natural environment. After a while they disappeared into the earth, sea and sky. The places where the Dreamtime beings had chosen to disappear are considered sacred places.

Adnyamathana example: The Adnyamathana dreaming tells of two giant serpents,called Akurra, that came down from the north and died. Their bodies formed the walls of Wilpena pound, a very distinctive geological formation in the Flinders Ranges.