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LIFESTYLE
Knowledge about the environment was thoroughly known by Adnyamathanha
people as their lives depended upon what nature offered. At a young
age, Adnyamathanha people developed the alertness, quick vision
and the patience that were required to track, hunt and gather food.
Women were of the greatest importance in the gathering and preparing
of foods.
Adnyamathanha people today continue to associate with their land
in a traditional way, even those who live in towns and cities. Many
return to their traditional land to gather traditional foods, such
as the Quandong fruit. (See
image)
Water
It was crucial to have the skills in unearthing and using
water supplies to remain alive in the northern area of the Flinders
Ranges. While there were moments when the water was plentiful, there
were also moments when droughts caused an extreme lack of water,
which was when the water had to be used carefully. Water was commonly
acquired close by Mt. Cereal through digging in Frome Creek in certain
localities.
Plants
The northern region of the Flinders Ranges provided many
plants from which a variety of foods were produced.There were a
number of different seed types from which damper was produced, and
there were many types of fruits and vegetables.
In the northern area of the Flinders Ranges, other fruits and berries
were also available, including wertapi, the red berries of the mistletoe,
the native fig, the miner, and the fruit of the bullock bush. The
native cress and diverse types of tubers which were cooked in a
ground oven, were some of the vegetable that were consumed.
The surface of eucalyptus leaves bore lerp manna or sugar lerps
that were white lumps made by insects. The native orange was also
available in the Flinders Ranges areas. Native oranges are similar
in appearance to small domestic oranges and had many seeds like
that of a passionfruit. It is usually ready to pick in summer, as
this is a time when it has an excellent supply of thiamine and vitamin
C.
Another fruit was the native pear,(also called wild banana), which
was widespread in the Flinders Ranges where it developed on a vine.
In the shape of an oval, it is green and approximately ten centimetres
in length. Its white flesh and green seeds were consumed. The vines'
roots were also consumed. While some of the roots were removed from
the ground, others were left, in order to ensure the plant's continued
existence.
"I like the bush tucker. I mostly like mayaaka, the wild pear,
cooked in the ashes, fruit or quandong, kangaroo meat." (Charlene
Coulthard,1989 in Education Department of South Australia, 1992;
123).
Wood Eating Grubs
There were
three different types of these grubs or larvae species which were
classified by the well - known term, "witgati". A particular type
was located in the red gum's roots, while gum tree trunks contained
another type about two metres above the ground. The third type was
situated in the taller branches of these trees. The usual size of
the witgati was approximately six centimetres in length and one
centimetre in width. Although they could be consumed in a raw state,
they were more tasty when slightly roasted on ashes or coals. Their
holes were easily identifiable with the presence of sawdust. If
the bark was thick cutting could be required. A thin stick or twig
with a sharp end was used to remove the grub. By using steps that
were engraved into the tree, hunters were able to climb the branches
and the top parts of the tree where the third type of grub was to
be located.
Animals
Euros, kangaroos, opossums and yellow- footed rock wallabies
were the main sources of animal food. Bandicoots, native cats and
stick nest rats may also have been among other animal food sources
but due to introduced animals such as foxes and rabbits, these species
rapidly declined in population. Clubs and nets were normally used
to hunt euros, kangaroos and wallabies. Nets were made of 'ildya'
and were concealed on animal paths that led towards water.
They were placed on the side of the path and hidden by the brush,
or placed on the path and concealed by dirt. Hunters would hide
while waiting for an animal to pass by, and at the required moment,
they jumped up in an attempt to scare the animal into the net where
it became entwined. The animal was then hit with wirras. Pits were
also made on animal paths, with branches, brush and leaves that
would return to their original position once the animal had fallen
through.
Bait was also placed on the surface of the trap. This technique
was capable of catching about thirty wallabies in one night. Stones
or spears were then used to kill them. In other situations, spears
were not used often. Various wirras combined with the use of nets
were more preferred. The people near Arkaba, which was between Hawker
and Wilpena Pound, occasionally threw wirras at animals.
Ground ovens were normally used to cook animals. Where the animal
was already skinned, leaves were used to cover the skin to prevent
burning. Animals were sometimes gutted so that hot stones could
be placed inside. After the meat was cooked, it was shared according
to the food rules. Various parts of the animal were given to particular
group members according to the rules laid down by the Dreaming.
Technology
The Adnyamathanha
people created many inventions that helped to improve their lifestyle.
Artavuka (gum)
The false sandalwood tree and the yacca tree both contain a gum
that was used as a glue to join a variety of tools when building
and fixing them.
Ita and Ildya
(string and sinew) String was normally made from animal
fur or human hair.
Fur would be reeled
to form cotton, which was then made into a ball. A spindle was used
to twist fur and hair. The marshmallow plant was another source
from which string could be made. When strong string was needed,
sinew from kangaroo and wallaby tails was extracted to make it.
Wirti uldha (leafy
broom) The branches of numerous trees were used as brooms.
These were used to sweep the surroundings of shelters to maintain
hygiene in the camp.
Yanmarri (ladderstick) A solid, strong branch, and
additional smaller, forked branches, were used to construct ladders.
The smaller branches were used as steps on the larger branch. Yanmarris
were used to assist in climbing trees in order to find birds, eggs,
possums and witchetty grubs.
Viri ( grub hook) The viri was essential for obtaining
witchetty grubs. It was a little stick with a hooked tip that was
placed in the grub's hole to remove the grub.
Wooden implements
Atha (digging stick) Athas were made of strong
mulga wood, and each was about 1.5 metres in length and 2.5 centimetres
in width. A stone knife was connected to one end so that this digging
stick could be used as a cutting tool. Both the women and men used
this tool. Athas were used to obtain food such as the wild pear
root or to dig a cooking hole, a bed, or a grave. One of its uses
was to dig the hole for which the women used in Vardnapa initiation
ceremonies.
Another use was as a weapon. Both the women and the men could use
it for fighting. The fighters would alternately hit each other on
the head until one of them fell to the ground or gave in. The defeated
competitor would not be hit again after that. Due to its various
uses, athas were essential tools for the Adnyamathanha people.
Medicine
The Aborigines have been able to survive in the harsh Australian
climate for hundred of years due to their knowledge of the land.
Much knowledge of medicine have been lost over the years such as
the use of specific plants but some of this knowledge has survived.
The following are some of the plants used and their benefits.
Smoke from the soft wood of the flower
spike of the yacca - Relieves chest infections
The shiney fan flower 'yudli' (scaevola spinescens) -The
fume relieves colds and the steam from a mixture of boiled leaves
and branches can be directed on to sores in order to cure skin ailments
Ointments made by mixing ash of
native plum tree and emu fat - for sores
Leaves of miyavuta (sleepdust fern)brushed over eye lid - Help
Children go to sleep
Bags and Nets
Malaka (net bag) The malaka was made of string. A
knot was tied where the strings met so that the bag would maintain
its shape. Another feature of this bag was its long handles. Besides
some of the food that was gathered, little babies were also carried
in this bag.
Yakutha (skin bag) These bags were also commonly
used. They were made from animal skins. The advantages of skin bags
were that they were capable of holding water, and as water bags,
they were used widely. Smaller bags were also made of the same material
and their purpose was to hold smaller objects. Objects that were
strictly forbidden and carried only by certain people who were allowed
to see them, were also carried in these bags.
Mindi This was a net that was used to capture animals
such as emus, kangaroos and rock wallabies. These nets were about
one metre in height and were made of ita. It was placed on the trail
of an animal which would be scared so that it went into the net,
which was then tightened. The animal was killed with a waddy.
Munda This was a larger net which was made of strong
string and sometimes of sinew. Mundas would be placed on the ground
and concealed with dirt. The animal would be frightened so that
it went into the net, which would then be raised to capture it.
Birds
A variety
of bird groups was found in the Flinders Ranges. Emus were a common
supply of food. Different types of birds were the bustard or turkey,
bronze-wing pigeon, curlew and wood duck, to name a few. Cooking
was achieved through the use of a ground oven. Large emu eggs were
one of the many types of bird's eggs which were also consumed.
Clothing
Women
During the winter season, the women dressed in cloaks that were
made from animal skins. Rugs produced of the same material were
worn during the nights to gain warmth. The types of skins that were
used include kangaroo, possum and wallaby skins. Embellishments
included headbands and necklaces. Necklaces could be made by using
numerous materials such as tea-tree seeds, or quandong stones, or
plaited vegetable fibres which supposedly had medicinal effects.
The headbands consisted of hair, and they were used for ceremonial
events.
Men
In winter, the men also wore cloaks made of animal skin. They wore
belts of woven hair that held a front blanket consisting of possum
skin and a
back blanket made of emu feathers. Men also wore headbands akin
to the type the women wore, for ceremonies. When coming back from
initiation ceremonies, Vardnapa and Wilyaru, men wore a cockatoo
feather, while the mother also wore one. The outer covering of animals
were cleaned of unnecessary fat and then hung out for a period of
several days in order to dry. Through forming little openings on
the interior of the skin with a stone knife, followed by rubbing,
twisting and rolling the skin, it was transformed into a softer
material. These skins were then sewed together using an animal bone
as a needle. Sinews from the tails of kangaroos or wallabies were
used as thread.
Reptiles
Both lizards
and snakes were consumed. Small lizards were chased and gathered
during the day, and were cooked and consumed for a quick meal upon
returning to camp. Bigger reptiles were capable of supplying repasts
for an entire family. Several reptiles are included in a number
of Dreaming Stories. Occasionally, these stories connected the coming
and passing of the sky's stars with the reptiles' hibernation periods.
Shelter
The area, season, time, resources
and people had an impact on shelters. Windbreaks, a simple type
of shelter, consisted of brushes that formed a semicircular shape,
with a fire positioned in front of the structure. Normally, larger
shelters were constructed. These types of shelters were known as
wildya, and there were a few varying forms according to the needs
of the constructors and inhabitants.
Appropriate grounds were cleared, and holes
were also made for fork-like bits of wood, that would become the
entry way. Two forked sticks were connected at the top fork, although
if a bigger shelter was needed, a branch, or a thin tree trunk,
would connect the top of the sticks. Additional branches were used
to construct the form needed to support the roof and the walls,
and were pushed into the soil to ensure firmness. The roofs and
walls were made from brush. To make the brush weatherproof, they
placed a coating of grass on the branches, and finally, added soil
into, and on top of the brush. These types of shelters were relatively
big, with the potential of containing two entry ways, and two rooms.
A family would usually construct a congregation of these wildyas,
perhaps with adjacent walls and their entries in the same direction,
opposite from the strong wind. In addition to a fire at the front
of the shelters, a windbreak was also constructed if needed. Beds
were made from digging a hollow in the soil, and filling it with
bullock brush or like materials, to be used as a mattress. These
beds were positioned in the actual shelters.
Weapons
Wadna and apiwirlanh (boomerangs) Boomerangs were
used for many purposes, including sport, hunting and ceremonies.
They were made from strong mulga wood. A suitably shaped piece was
removed from a tree by using a flint knife or a tomahawk. It was
then shaped to the required form and then put in ash to become hardened.
Its size was about 40 centimetres or more. The smaller types, wadnas,
were capable of returning to their user, while the larger types,
apiwirlanha, were not capable of this. The boomerangs that could
return to their user were used in hunting to injure fast moving
animals such as emus. If it came into contact with the animal's
neck, instant death resulted for the animal. If it were the animal's
feet, this prevented the animal's escape. Boomerangs were also used
as a club-like instrument. They were used in competitions where
users would compete to throw them the furthest.. When using returning
boomerangs, the winner was the one who could best return his boomerang
to its original position. At Vardnapa ceremonies, boomerangs were
used as clapsticks. They were also used when someone died. Visitors
would come and attack with boomerangs, while the insiders would
defend themselves with athas and waddies. If the mourners' blood
was spilt then the ritual was completed because they shed blood
for their deceased. Normally, no one was severely injured.
Aya and wardath (spears) There were many types of
spears. Normally, they were not used for hunting purposes, as nets
and waddies were more effective. Small spears, ayas, were made from
thin mulga trees and measured up to about one to five centimetres
in width, and one metre long. Its barbed tip may not have killed
the prey but it would have slowed the animal's progress so that
the hunters were able to track and capture it. Wardlathas, (larger
spears), were made from mulga. They were three centimetres in width
and two metres long, with sharp tip and barbs. These spears were
used for fighting, punishing law breakers and in some rituals, particularly
Vardnapa rituals.
Yalda wirri, wirri mutyatya, mun-gu wirri, kukura and wava
( play sticks and waddies ) Waddies could be made of stone
and wood. They were mostly used for hunting with the use of nets,
and for fighting.
A yalda wirri, ( stone waddy ), was constructed from slate. The
form of this type of waddy was not made by hand but it was chosen
from rocks in slate deposits. These formations were examined in
order to locate a suitably shaped rock.
The wirra mutyatya, ( wooden waddy ), was made from strong mulga
wood. It was the hunting weapon that was commonly used. A suitably
shaped piece of wood was fashioned with a bulge at one end, and
measured up to half a metre long. The bulge was specifically created
in order to strike animals such as emus and kangaroos on their heads.
This weapon was employed by men.
A mun-gu wirri, ( large waddy ) was potentially 1.3 metres in length,
and was also made of mulga. These were used for fighting. It was
a lethal weapon because its exterior was smoked so that it would
remain hard. Its sharp rims were also capable of breaking one's
bones. When two men were fighting, they struck at each other alternately,
until one of them gave in or fell. This was when the fight was completed
The vanquished fighter would not be struck again.
A number of throwing sticks were made of lighter wood. These were
used for games and regular throwing practices, the purpose of which
was to improve throwing accuracy. A kukura measured to about 60
centimetres in length and had a bulge at one end. The wava was curved,
large and heavy, with more width at one end than at the other. It
was employed in a game where it was hurled at a log on the ground
to determine how the wava could bounce off the log and travel in
another direction. The purpose of this game was to advance precision
and strength in throwing.
Thiparras (shields) Shields were made of a green
wood piece that was suitably shaped and of about half a metre long,
with a handle that was built into its interior. Thiparras were used
to fight off the tough blows of an adversary.
Wooden Implements
Atha ( digging stick ) Athas were made of strong
mulga wood, and each was about 1.5 metres in length and 2.5 centimetres
in width. A stone knife was connected to one end so that this digging
stick could be used as a cutting tool. Both the women and men used
this tool. Athas were used to obtain food, such as the wild pear
root, to dig a cooking hole, a bed, or a grave.
One of its uses was to dig the hole which the women used in Vardnapa
initiation ceremonies. Another use was as a weapon. Both the women
and the men could use it for fighting. The fighters would alternately
hit each other on the head until one of them fell to the ground
or gave in. The defeated competitor would not be hit again after
that. Due to its various uses, athas were essential tools for the
Adnyamathanha people.
Yardlu ( wooden dish ) Yardlus were also widely used.
The curved part of a hollow tree would provide the necessary materials
to create a dish shape. These were used to hold various objects
including little babies, food that was gathered, cooking seeds and
winnow seeds. Sometimes they were also used with athas.
Ardla wura ( matchstick ) To make a fire, two bits
of wood from a yaccas stem were used. However, the use of flintstones
were also possible. A large piece of wood would be placed on the
ground with the hole positioned upwards.
Tinder, such as dry leaves, would be placed in the hole along with
a small stick. The small stick would be held in the hands and twisted
rapidly and energetically to produce heat that would burn the tinder.
While the fire was being made, the person making it would sing a
song. Today, Adnyamathanha people still like to cook their food
in the customary way, although matches and lighters are used to
light the fire.
Stone Tools
Wadla
(grinding stones) A flat and solid stone would be used as
a foundation for crushing seeds into fine particles. A stone of
smaller size was used to pulverize various seeds. These tools were
also used for pounding ochre, and withdrawing bone marrow.
Yurdla (knives
and axes) Thin pieces of a flint stone piece, with the shape
like that of a knife-head, would have been split off to create a
sharp rim.
Yurdlas (knives)
were made out of this stone, with one curved end to be the handle.
Knives of flint were used for a variety of things, including forming
wood, removing skins, lacerating meat, making string from sinew,
and for ceremonial purposes, such as creating marks on one's body.
Sharpened stones would have potentially been built into an axe or
tomahawk.
Branches and sticks approximately 30 centimetres long, were separated
at one of their tips, so that a stone could be set in between. Sinew
or string was used to fasten it firmly, while gum would be melted
so that it was malleable enough to stick around the axehead, strengthening
its position as the gum became solid. While Adnyamathanha people
produced these type of axes, through trading with people of the
northern area, they acquired other axes which were also of very
good value.
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