Science & Technology

Building construction

he waning of the cathedral crusade in the late 14th century led to a decline in the International Gothic style practiced by the master masons. In this period the emerging nation-states of Europe began to compete with the church as centres of power. To these new nations, the Roman Empire was the model nation-state, and it seemed appropriate that they use Roman building forms as symbols of their power, particularly the round arch, the vault, and, above all, the dome, following the powerful example of the Pantheon. From 1350 until 1750 much of building technology was focused on the domed church, which developed as a symbol not only of religious belief but also of national and urban pride. There was a conscious rejection of Gothic forms in favour of the ideological appeal of Rome. This attitude led to a split between the processes of design and construction and to the appearance of the first architects (a word derived from the Greek architekton, meaning a chief craftsman), who conceived a building's form, as opposed to the builder, who executed it. The first building in which the designer and the builder were separate persons was the Campanile, or bell tower, of the cathedral of Florence. The design was made by the painter Giotto and constructed by cathedral masons from 1334 to 1359.

The cathedral of Florence itself had been begun in the Gothic style by Arnolfo di Cambio in 1296. But in 1366 the City of Florence, following the advice of certain painters and sculptors, decided that the Gothic should no longer be used and that all new work should follow Roman forms, including an octagonal dome 42 metres (138 feet) in span to be built at the east end of the nave. The dome was not built until the early 15th century, when Filippo Brunelleschi, a goldsmith and sculptor, began to make statues for the cathedral. Gradually he became interested in the building itself and built some smaller parts of it. In about 1415 he prepared a design for the dome that he daringly proposed to build without the aid of formwork, which had been absolutely necessary in all previous Roman and Gothic construction. He built a 1 : 12 model of the dome in brick to demonstrate his method; the design was accepted and built under his supervision from 1420 to 1436. Brunelleschi was thus the first real architect to conceive the building's form and the methods to execute it and to guarantee its performance; he pointedly refused membership in both the masons' and carpenters' guilds. Brunelleschi's dome consists of two layers, an inner dome spanning the diameter and a parallel outer shell to protect it from the weather and give it a more pleasing external form. Both domes are supported by 24 stone half arches, or ribs, of circular form, 2.1 metres (seven feet) thick at the base and tapering to 1.5 metres (five feet), which meet at an open stone compression ring at the top. To resist outward thrust, tie rings of stone held together with metal cramps run horizontally between the ribs. There are also tie rings of oak timbers joined by metal connectors. The spaces between the ribs and tie rings are spanned by the inner and outer shells, which are of stone for the first 7.1 metres (23 feet) and brick above. The entire structure was built without formwork, the circular profiles of the ribs and rings being maintained by a system of measuring wires fixed at the centres of curvature. Brunelleschi obviously understood enough about the structural behaviour of the dome to know that, if it were built in horizontal layers, it would always be stable and not require timber centring. He also designed elaborate wooden machines to move the needed building materials both vertically and horizontally. Having all but equaled the span of the Pantheon in stone, Brunelleschi was hailed as the man who "renewed Roman masonry work"; the dome was established as the paragon of built form.

The next great dome of the Renaissance was that of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome, begun by Pope Julius II in 1506. The technology was very similar to that of Brunelleschi, and the diameter is nearly the same. The dome's design went through many changes and extended over a period of nearly 80 years. The major contributors to the design were the painter and sculptor Michelangelo, who served as architect from 1546 to 1564, and the architects Giacomo della Porta and Domenico Fontana, under whose direction it was finally built during the 1580s. The dome was considerably thinner than that of Florence and was reinforced by three tie rings made of continuous iron chains. It developed numerous cracks, and in the 1740s five more chains were added to further stabilize it. Since the dome used a proven technology, most of the design was done on paper with drawings.

Another large dome of this period was that of St. Paul's Cathedral in London, which was built from 1675 to 1710 by the English architect Sir Christopher Wren. In the early stages of the design process only two physical models were used; later efforts included extensive drawings and apparently also mathematical modeling with numerical calculations. Wren had begun his career as a mathematician and physical scientist and was professor of astronomy at Oxford from 1661 to 1673 before becoming a full-time architect. With this background he was thus able to profit from the first theoretical determination of the catenary curve as the most efficient profile of the arch and dome, which was published by the Scottish mathematician David Gregory in 1697. Wren's solution to the dome, which has a diameter of 34.5 metres (113 feet), was a series of three nested shells, of which the middle one is the true structure. This middle dome is built of brick in a nearly conical catenary form, owing to the large concentrated load of the lantern on top, and constrained by iron chains; it supports a triangularly braced timber framework to which is attached the exterior surfacing of lead sheets. Within the middle dome is a shallower catenary dome that carries only its own weight and serves as a ceiling for the interior space. Wren's concealed structure, to which were applied the desired internal and external forms, has become a standard architectural technique.

Revival of Roman technics and materials

In addition to Roman forms in masonry, the Renaissance recovered other Roman technologies, including timber trusses. Giorgio Vasari used king-post timber trusses for a 20-metre (66-foot) span in the roof of the Uffizi, or municipal office building, in Florence in the mid-16th century. At the same time, the Venetian architect Andrea Palladio used a fully triangulated timber truss for a bridge with a span of 30.5 metres (100 feet) over the Cimone River. Palladio clearly understood the importance of the carefully detailed diagonal members, for in his diagram of the truss in his Four Books on Architecture he said that they "support the whole work." The tension connections of the timber members in the truss were joined with iron cramps and bolts.

Trussed spans in the range of 20-26 metres (65-85 feet) became fairly common in building roofs. In 1664 Wren used timber trusses with a span of about 22 metres (73 feet) in the roof of the Sheldonian Theatre at Oxford. But a precise theoretical understanding of the truss, and major use of it in buildings, would not come until the 19th century.

Another Roman material that was revived and much improved in the Renaissance was clear glass. A new technique for making it was perfected in Venice in the 16th century. It was known as the crown glass method and was originally used for making dinner plates. Glassblowers spun the molten glass into flat disks up to a metre in diameter; the disks were polished after they had cooled and were cut into rectangular shapes. The first record of crown glass windows is their installation in double-hung counterweighted sliding-sash frames, at Inigo Jones's Banqueting House in London in 1685. Large areas of such glass became common in the 1700s, pointing the way toward the great glass and iron buildings of the 19th century.

The efficiency of interior heating was improved by the introduction of cast-iron and clay-tile stoves, which were placed in a free-standing position in the room. The radiant heat they produced was uniformly distributed in the space, and they lent themselves to the burning of coal--a new fuel that was rapidly replacing wood in western Europe. When European builders had recovered the technology of the classical world in brick, stone, and timber, a stable plateau was reached in the development of the building arts; these materials and technics were well suited to the churches, palaces, and fortifications that their patrons required. The Industrial Revolution, however, brought new materials and the demand for new building types that completely transformed building technology.