Religion

The Events of the Reformation

he spark of the Reformation fire was Martin Luther, a monk and doctor of theology. For many years Martin Luther harbored grievances about the Roman Catholic Church's (RCC) behavior and corrupt deeds. All this came to a point in 1517 when Luther publicly opposed John Tetzel, who was a pardoner selling indulgences to the public, the funds of which would be put toward the building of St. Peter's basilica in Rome.

Luther consequently wrote his 95 Theses, which he posted on the Wittenberg Castle church on October 31 1517. He also openly invited scholars to argue his Theses. As soon as these theses were printed by the newly developed printing press, word of Luther spread all over Germany.

The Roman Catholic Pope, the supreme head of the RCC, Pope Leo, at first simply acknowledged Luther as a rebellious, undisciplined monk. Luther's ideas grew more extreme, and at one point he suggested Christians could remove the pope from the church. This idea posed a great threat to the pope, who in 1520 threatened Luther with excommunication with a decree he issued, if Luther didn't repent.

In response, Luther burned the decree in a bonfire. The pope consequently excommunicated Luther.

In 1521 Luther was called to Worms, Germany, by the Holy Roman Emperor (Charles V) to stand trial. Before the witness of numerous princes and bishops, Luther chose not to recant his ideas and statements, and Emperor Charles promulgated the Edict of Worms. This proclaimed Luther to be a heretic as well as an outlaw. As a result, all his writings were burnt, and the public was not permitted to communicate with, help or even discuss Luther. Prince Frederick the Wise of Saxony disobeyed the Edict and gave Luther shelter. While in Frederick's care, Luther began translating the New Testament of the Bible into German.

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When Luther returned to Wittenberg in 1522, he was pleasantly surprised. People had begun following his ideas. Priests had come down from their pedestals, and called themselves ministers. Some had even married - against the RCC's doctrine - an idea Luther had followed, as he also later married. Church services were being given in German instead of the usual Latin, and now unlearned people could understand the sermons. These followers of Luther's ideas became known as Lutherans.

However, some followers took Luther’s ideas to the extreme. One of the things that Luther had taught was that the meek shall inherit the earth, according to the Bible. In 1524, peasants in Germany that as the meek serfs, they deserved to be granted land and possessions immediately. They burnt and pillaged towns and monasteries, which shocked Luther. In a pamphlet he insisted that the German princes oppose and overcome the uprising. Thousands of serfs died as a result. Hereafter, the peasants refused to be led by Luther, feeling deeply betrayed. Luther’s teachings, however, remained to be efficacious.

After this, a time arose when the whole of Germany was in dispute. The princes of northern Germany supported Luther – while some saw it as an opportunity to gain some of the RCC’s property – and in 1529 those supportive of the pope started opposing Luther. Supporters of Luther, i.e. northern princes, protested. This is where the word Protestant originates, meaning a non-Catholic Christian.

Anxious so as not to lose support from his princes, Emperor Charles V went to war against Protestantism. Despite defeating them in 1547, Charles was unable to coerce the Protestants to rejoin the RCC.

In exasperation, Charles V ordered an assembly in Augsburg. In 1555 the Peace of Augsburg was declared – the decision was made that each prince would decide upon his state’s religion.

At this time, King Henry VIII of England was faced with a problematic issue. He had married Catherine of Aragon in order to avoid a war similar to the one his father had been faced with. Catherine gave birth to a daughter, Mary. Henry wanted a male heir, as a woman had never been able to claim the English throne.

So in 1527 he convinced Catherine that the best would be for him to divorce her and marry another woman. The RCC didn’t allow for divorce, so Henry appealed for the marriage to be annulled. The pope, however, refused to annul the marriage, as he was worried about offending Catherine’s nephew, the Holy Roman Emperor Charles V. In order for his wishes to be fulfilled, Henry asked Parliament in 1529 to pass a decree, ordering the disabling of the pope’s power in England. This was known as the Reformation Parliament.

By 1533, parliament had allowed Henry to divorce Catherine and he married Anne Boleyn in secret.

Next followed the Act of Supremacy, which totally severed England from the RCC’s rule. It stated that England’s King had power above the pope to rule the Church.

As consequence to his actions, Henry seized all that had been the RCC’s. He took over all the RCC’s property. He now owned 20% of all England’s lands – he had vastly increased his power. Anne Boleyn was imprisoned and beheaded after giving birth to a girl. After 4 later marriages, Henry’s son Edward was born. Henry left his throne to 3 children when he died. Edward ruled England from the age of 9 to 15, making Protestantism the national religion. After Edward, Mary (his half-sister) ruled. She restored Catholicism and had many Protestants massacred. Next, Elizabeth (daughter of Anne Boleyn) ascended the throne in 1559. She not only restored Protestantism, but made it law to attend church services. Hereafter, the Anglican (English) Church was founded, with Elizabeth at the head. This Church was meant to be acceptable to moderate Protestants and Catholics. In this new denomination, sermons were given in English and priests were permitted to marry. In order for the Catholics to better accept the Anglican Church, some of the somewhat ostentatious décor, as well as the Book of Common Prayer, were retained.

As Elizabeth had been in support of the Protestants that were rising up against Philip II of Spain, he was making plans to invade England. On July 29 1588 the Spanish Armada, a vast fleet of battleships, drew near to England’s southwest coast. However, England’s superior navy and the bad weather defeated the Spanish.

In the midst of financial worries, Elizabeth looked to American colonization as help. This venture only proved to strengthen England economically though, and Elizabeth’s financial crisis continued into the next reign.

Calvin, a follower and developer of the ideas of Luther and Zwingli, published Institutes of the Christian Religion in 1536. Hereby he voiced his beliefs on God, human nature, salvation and also brought to light his ideas on Protestantism. He ruled Geneva from 1541, and instituted there his government concept called Theorcracy – a city governed by religious leaders.

Following Calvin’s teachings, he began putting his concepts to work in Scottish communities. Knox’s followers were known as Presbyterians. Knox led the Protestants in the 1560's to making Calvinism the Scottish official religion. Numerous present-day denominations originated in Calvinism.

The Catholic Reformation

Due to all this outside influence, the RCC had to eventually buckle under the pressures of change. One of the most influential internal reformers was Ignatius Loyola. He grew up in Spain in his father's castle, and was badly wounded in a war. His long recovery afforded him the time to reflect upon his life and his belief in Jesus. He wrote Spiritual Exercises that brought to light his idea that daily meditation, devotion and prayer absolved the human soul of blemish. In 1540, the Jesuits became known as a religious group. After gathering followers for 18 years, he was able to have the Society of Jesus (Jesuits) recognized by the Pope. This order was mainly concerned with establishing a reputable education in classics and theology; by the means of missionaries convert non-christians; and prevent the spread of Protestantism.

Reformation also began filtering into the leaders of the RCC. Paul the third took four important steps to reform. Firstly, he spearheaded investigations into abuses such as the selling of indulgences and relics. Secondly, he allowed for the establishment of the Jesuits. He thirdly rooted out heresy in papal territory by the Inquisition. Lastly, he called the Council of Trent, an assembly of church leaders in northern Italy. Here the leaders agreed on various doctrines, such as the finality of the church's under-

Standing of the Bible and that - or be charged with heresy. They also deduced that faith alone did not grant

People salvation, but good works too. It was also agreed upon that church tradition was as imperative as the Bible in the guidance and direction of christian life. Lastly, it was decided that despite the false selling of indulgences was outlawed, indulgences still qualified as a viable assertion of faith.

The consequent Pope, Paul the fourth, continued to follow the council of Trent's rules. He drew up the Index of Forbidden book (a list of texts posing a threat to the Catholic religion), which included the Protestant Bible. These books were therefore collected and burned by Catholic Bishops.

The Consequences

The Catholic church evidently would not give up, and were determined to fight Protestantism with their counter-Reformation. However, the Protestant faith spread and prospered despite this raging opposition. From the point when Luther began his writings, churches in Europe splintered into numerous pieces, each with differing views and teachings. Europe was never again to be unified by its' religion.

The church itself lost power among its subjects as political leaders began taking the foremost leadership role in their states instead of the RCC. This prepared the way for the formation of separate countries.