Towards the end of the 1800s, scientists discovered that algae and bacteria
produced hydrogen. The bacteria produce it in the process of fermentation (digesting
glucose) as they make heavy compounds that are poisonous to humans. In fact Clostridium
butyricum, which makes 4.3 cubic feet of hydrogen per pound, is probably know for
causing the disease known as botulism. Some produce cyanides.
In the United States, the National Science Foundation started soliciting awards for
hydrogen production after the oil embargos of the 1970s.
Two sources of natural hydrogen production are microorganisms:
bacteria - by digesting its food
algae - photosynthesis (its breathing)
Bacteria hydrogen production
Bacteria even exist in the large intestines of humans to digest sugars, carbohydrates,
starches, and fiber. The bacteria release hydrogen, methane, and carbon dioxide.
We are interested in the ones that release hydrogen.
Dr. Anastasios Melis, a biochemist at the University of California Berkeley figured out a
way to trick green algae into producing hydrogen. Normally the single-celled
Chlamydomonas in its photosynthesis is very similar to normal green land plant
photosynthesis covered in the hydrogen science-background-section of this project
(see above). When Chlamydomonas is deprived of sulphur and is still exposed to the
sunlight, it switches to another metabolic state after about one day (20 or so hours).
Rather than suffocate, they go into a hydrogenase mode.
Hydrogenase is an enzyme that reverses the charge separation (see light cycle above)
giving the hydrogen proton an electron to release hydrogen gas.
In this process the alga recycles its proteins to get sulphur to survive. It produces
hydrogen that is 87% pure. The rest is 12% nitrogen and 1% carbon dioxide. 1 milliliter
of algae produces 3 milliliters of hydrogen per hour. After 150 hours the algae have
consumed all of their proteins and must be allowed to photosynthesize with sulphur to
charge up again. But they can be used over and over again. 1 pond can fuel 12 hydrogen
cars for a week.
REF: Melis, A.; Zhang, L.; Forestier, M.; Ghirardi, M.; and Seibert, M.; Sustained
photobiological hydrogen gas production upon reversible inactivation of oxygen
evolution in the green alga Chlamydomonas reinhardtii; Plant Physiology 122;
pages 127-135.
Kristin Volle of Fairview High School in Boulder, Colorado, USA, received funding from the
National Renewable Energy Laboratory to study cyanobacterium and algae using
hydrogenase enzymes to see how it affected production of hydrogen to be used as an
alternative fuel.
Kiran Sah displayed a fuel cell in the 1997 national science fair. Sah used a bacteria,
Proteus vulgaris, on the anode to generate hydrogen and a blue-green algae, Anabaena
cylindrica on the cathode to produce oxygen. The bacteria ate sucrose. The cell used
platinum electrodes. During the display, the cell was powering a fan.
Iceland plans to be 100% free of fossil fuel use by 2040. The country is perfect for producing
hydrogen from stagnant green algae pools (Chlamydomonas reinhardtii). See the details
in the reference below.
Jonathan Woodward at ORNL's Chemical Technology Division discovered in 1996 how to make
hydrogen from glucose with bacteria called "extremophiles." ORNL defines these kinds
of bacteria as tough, because they thrive in hot places, such as deep beneath the earth.
He discovered that these bacteria use an enzyme that converts glucose and gluconic acid
into hydrogen. Woodward and his staff have been making hydrogen from biomass (sources
of cellulose, such as old newspapers and grass clippings). The lab has succeeded in
an amazing yield of 12 hydrogen molecules for each cellulose molecule. That's a 97%
yield. They have been working with a hydrogenase produced by the bacteria, Pyrococcus
furiosus. Hydrogenase enzymes, as mentioned earlier, accept electrons from HADPH
(see photosynthesis discussion earlier) to release gaseous hydrogen.
Currently, the disposal of wood and paper products produces carbon dioxide either in the
biodegradation or incineration. Woodard alleges that the cellulose from waste
newspapers in the United States for one year could produce enough hydrogen to meet the
energy needs of 37 cities of population of 27,000 each.
The history of fermentation of cellulose is very interesting. During World War II, the
US Army discovered that cotton and paper products quickly rotted in the tropics. The
Quartermaster Corps brought the bacteria home for study in the US Army Natick Research
and Development Command laboratory (NARADCOM).
NARADCOM developed the technology to develop an alternative source of food (glucose)
from cellulose after the war with the hope of providing food to the world's starving.
Work continued until 1979, when this intellectual property was
transferred by executive order to the Department of Energy, shortly after it was established,
and to universities.
In the late 1970s the US federal government realized that these experiments with
bacteria and enzymes could not only produce alternative food sources (sugars), but
renewable, clean fuels, and other useful chemicals. At this time, the US government
stopped funding research in this area at NARADCOM and funded it through the other
federal agencies and labs through the Department of Energy.
The army developed chemicals during that time to treat clothing that seals off the
food supply from the bacteria, thus preventing the deterioration of uniforms in tropical
areas.
REF: DRCDL-101; Posture Report FY 79; US Army - Natick Research and Development
Command; pages 113, 114, 115, and 163.
The US produces 170 million tons of garbage a year, which is the same energy capability
as 70 million tons of coal or 45,000,000 barrels of oil per day.
US garbage consists of the following:
41% paper
18% yard waste (grass clippings, etc.)
9% metal cans
8% glass containers
7% plastic
Here's what happens: the decaying process produces hydrocarbons (CnHm).
Once the hydrocarbons are captured, the hydrogen is produced either by spraying steam
on it or by heating it, like so:
Steam: CnHm + H2O + HEAT -> nCO + (n + ½m) x H2
Heat alone: CnHm + HEAT -> nC + (½m x H2)
Peavey, Michael A.; Fuel From Water - Energy Independence with
Hydrogen; Louisville, KY; Merit, Inc.; pages 75 & 76.
Hydrogen as a byproduct of making agricultural fertilizer
Dr. Paul Bishop of NC State in his working with USDA research has worked with bacteria
living in the soil that "fix" nitrogen using various types of nitrogenases. Iron
nitrogenases enable bacteria to produce twice the amount of hydrogen as those using
molybdenum. These bacteria fix nitrogen and produce hydrogen, using solar energy.
It was Jules Vern's dream to use water as fuel. Extracting hydrogen from water using
sunlight is a step in that direction. The iron-sulfur catalyst is called ferredoxin.
Experimentation has been done with spinach chloroplasts and with the algae Chlamydomonas
(see above).
Humans give off carbon dioxide, hydrogen, and methane during the digestive process.
Just like the other bacteria processes mentioned above, some processes give off
carbon dioxide and methane, which are greenhouse gasses. However, if the methane
is reformed, hydrogen is produced with carbon dioxide.
Reformation of natural gas (methane)
This produces carbon dioxide in the process of making hydrogen. 95% of the hydrogen
made today is through
reformation of natural gas.
Solar cells are only 10% efficient, yet a square grid of photovoltaic cells 75 miles
by 75 miles in Arizona could produce 1,000,000 megawatts, which is the electrical need
of the United States this year (2000).
Solar power could manufacture hydrogen from water through electrolysis (see below).
Solar Power Corporation in San Diego, California believes the costs per kilowatt of
power in the future will be:
$0.0285 for solar power
$0.0285 for hydropower or natural gas
$0.0775 for nuclear power
$0.0993 for coal
REF: Peavey, Michael A.; Fuel From Water; Louisville, KY, Merit, Inc.;
1998; page 45.
The solar systems are not a joke. Sacramento (local government) in California USA
generates power for 1,000 users. This interconnected mini-grid makes hundreds of
homes mini power plants. They are committed to being competitive in the technology,
hoping to capitalize on that as the world moves away from fossil fuels.
BMBF has invested $129,000,000 in solar production of hydrogen in the past 10 years.
They feel that the hydrogen economy will become dominant in the next 30 to 50 years.
Deutsche Aerospace invested $89,000,000 in solar production of hydrogen, but stopped
because of the costs. Apparently the solar production of hydrogen is not
commercially viable yet (profit margin is not sufficient to operate).
An alternative to photosynthesis is to use a magnifying glass to focus sunlight, where
temperatures of 4,946°F break down water into hydrogen and oxygen.
Roy McAlister, President of the American Hydrogen Association says that 12,000 square
miles is enough area using this technology to meet the energy needs of the United
States.
The biggest problem with this is keeping the hydrogen and oxygen apart. One solution
is using a centrifuge to separate the heavier oxygen from the lighter hydrogen. The
problem is finding a porous membrane that would allow separation, because none is known
that will sustain the high temperature.
REF: Peavey, Michael A.; Fuel From Water; Louisville, KY, Merit, Inc.;
1998; page 57.
Wind Power
Wind power, likewise could be used to produce hydrogen by electrolysis (see below).
The wind power of the 48 United States is 400 billion kilowatts, the residential consumption
in the US from 1970 to 1985 (a 15 year period). This is the total electrical consumption in the
US for about 5 years.
REF: Peavey, Michael A.; Fuel From Water; Louisville, KY, Merit, Inc.;
1998; page 49.
Canada - hydroelectric hydrogen
Petroleum Magazine reported in December 1999 that within the next two years, Canada could
become an inexpensive source of hydrogen due to her cheap hydroelectric power capability.
The on-line story found in e-Petroleum tells about Hydro-Quebec's development of 40-foot
hydrogen containers for shipping of hydrogen overseas.
The article notes how Germany, France, and Belgium already have hydrogen pipelines. In
fact Germany has two hydrogen distribution centers. Germany has had pipelines for
fifty years.
REF: Morgan, Daniel; Congressional Research Service Report for Congress - Hydrogen: Technology and
Policy;April 28, 1995.
http://www.cnie.org/nle/eng-4.html
An entry in the 2000 ThinkQuest Internet Challenge.
Click on logo to the right for details.
