British prime minister Winston Churchill described the division between east and west Europe like an iron curtain extending across the continent. On the west side of this division are the countries of England, which was already covered, France, Spain, Portugal, Norway, Denmark, the Netherlands, Italy, and Switzerland.

Like England, much of the western mainland of the European Continent was part of the Roman Empire back when it was in power. This allowed large parts of Europe to begin developing into more populated, established cities. Towards the end of the Roman Empire the Huns from Asia invaded Europe, forcing the Visigoths, a German Tribe to seek safety in the Roman Empire. This was granted, and when Rome was divided into the Western and Eastern Roman Empires, following the death of the emperor Theodosius in 395 CE, German leaders took control of the western half. In 410 CE the Visigoths plundered Rome, then set up a kingdom in present day Spain. Here they were later defeated by the Muslims.

The Huns had continued moving west and were now attacking in France under Atilla the Hun. He was defeated at the battle of Chalons and later attacked Rome. Here he was convinced by the Pope not to destroy the city. By the year 476 CE all of the Western Roman Empire had been destroyed.

The fall of Rome sent all of western Europe into decline. The culture of the Romans faded, and trade was cut off. With time, however, culture and civilization began to develop again from the tribes now controlling Europe, and borders began forming. The most powerful of these tribes were the Franks, who set up an empire in modern day France. This became known as the Holy Roman Empire and was ruled most successfully by Charlemagne from 768 CE to his death in 814 CE. It held France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Austria, and Switzerland, along with parts of Germany, Italy, and other nations. In the year 800 CE the Pope crowned Charlemagne emperor. Upon his death, Charlemagne was not followed by leaders as strong as himself, and the empire broke apart. The next 200 years went by without another strong king emerging throughout Europe.

As Europe continued into the Middle Ages, society was controlled by the feudal pyramid described in the section on England, and the church became a powerful influence on everyday life. In 1095 CE Pope Urban II asked for help in driving the Muslims from Palestine. A series of holy wars were organized which became known as the Crusades. Although unsuccessful in recapturing the Christian’s holy land, the Crusades increased the power of the church, the power of the monarchs, the population of cities in western Europe, and trade.

During this time the pope and monarch were often in conflicts of power. There were times in which both leaders claimed the power governing certain decisions. In 1122 CE the Concordat of Worms was signed, deciding that the pope and king would share the loyalty of bishops. The king would provide land for the bishops, who would be in charge of affairs of state, while the pope would provide religious power for their loyalty in the affairs of God.

In 1348 CE a terrible disease broke out that would kill one third of Europe’s population, about 25 million people. This disease, known as the Black Death or the bubonic plague came over to Europe from Asia in the form of flea infested rats. Due to the lack of sanitation in Europe during the middle ages it spread quickly, and the number of deaths worsened the condition of the economy, but taking away a large percentage of the working class.

France was led to the status of a nation by a series of strong kings from 987 CE through 1314 CE. This included Philip the Fair, who called a meeting of clergy, nobles, and townspeople in 1302 CE. Since it included all three classes it became known as the Estates-General. This was on even that began gaining national loyalty to the French government.

Competition for land let to a long series of wars between the newly formed nations of France and England. These lasted from 1337 to 1453 CE and became known as the Hundred Years War. Defeat looked inevitable for France in 1428 as the English attacked the city of Orleans. However, a young peasant girl named Joan of Arc led the French army to a victory after having a Holy vision. With the English gone Charles VII was crowned. Joan of Arc was burned at the stake by the English, but France went on to win the war, having been united under her leadership. It was a bittersweet victory, however, due to the mass amount of destruction brought about by English siege. The winning of this war restored power to the monarchs and brought an end to feudalism.

Following the example of France and England other nations began to form. The Muslims who had conquered the Visigoths were now known as the Moors and held the Iberian Peninsula. An attempt to retake the peninsula known as the Reconquest began. In 1147 CE Alfonso I took Lisbon and established Portugal by his death in 1185. Spain took a bit longer to unify into a nation. In the year 1200 it was comprised of four independent kingdoms. However, soon the number was down to three and in 1469 CE Fredinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile married and unified Spain into one nation.

Switzerland united in 1291 CE and built a powerful army. With this they gained independence from the Holy Roman Empire. However, after suffering extreme losses in a battle with France they declared neutrality in 1515 CE.

The Netherlands and Belgium were both under the Catholic rule of the Spaniards. However, a rebellion occurred when the Netherlands decided to adopt the Protestant faith as their official church. They claimed their independence in 1581 CE.

The northern nations of Scandinavia were made up of fierce Viking seafarers and raiders. They were in competition with each other for control of the North Sea. However, around 1380 the Danish queen Mangrethe I managed to unite them all. They remained this way until Swedish leader Gustavus Vasa led a rebellion again Danish King Christian II and named himself King Gustav I of the now independent nation of Sweden.

All this while Italy did not unify. This was because the pope had control of a number of centrally located states. By keeping the states from uniting to form a nation the pope increased his power. This way he remained in control without having to worry about a common monarch.

The blooming of all these new nations and restoration of order throughout Europe spawned a renewed interest in the arts known as the Renaissance from 1300 through 1600. This began in Italy and spread up throughout Europe. It provided the world with many of the classic sculptors, painters, and authors.

As history progressed and the church grew in age it became more corrupt. Clergy began selling forgiveness from god in the form of Indulgences. Due to this people grew outraged and new churches began to form, including the Protestant Church under the leadership of Martin Luther.

About the year 1450 CE a new interest was sparked in the field of exploration. Italian born navigator Christopher Columbus believed he could find a trade route to the eastern lands of China and India by sailing west. His voyage was funded by Spanish monarchs Ferdinand and Isabella, and he set sail west. In 1492 he landed in what was later identified as North and South America. This spawned large amounts of exploration, led by the nations of Spain and Portugal. Explorers hoped to discover gold, achieve fame, or convert natives to their religions. France and the Netherlands followed later, predominantly for the purpose of trade. To divide the lands Spain and Portugal agreed on a Line of Demarcation. Spain had claim to all lands west of the line, and Portugal to all lands east of it.

Spain throughout these years was controlled by an absolute monarchy, which eventually helped lead to its decline. Charles V ruled from 1516 through 1556, and was followed by Philip II. Philip was in charge of the Spanish Inquisition, a court which was designed to punish Europeans who were not Catholics. He was also the leader when the powerful Spanish Armada fell to England, beginning the long road to Spain’s loss of power. These and other negative effects to the absolutism governing Spain outweighed the few benefits and led to the demise of its empire.

France was also under the rule of an absolute monarch during these times. The prime example of this would be Louis XIV, the epitome of absolutism. Louis ruled France from 1661 to 1715 CE. He was known as the Sun King because of his importance to the nation of France. During his reign he strove to expand the area he ruled, and frequently made war with European neighbors. An example was the War of the Spanish Succession in which Louis went to war with England over whether a relative of his could take the Spanish throne. However, in this attempt France lost much more than it gained. Regardless of this, monarchs all over Europe looked to Louis for guidance. Unfortunately Louis also made many mistakes. He put out huge sums of money to please his own fancy with banquets and gold. This put financial burdens on the country. He also spent more money on wars than he did on keeping peace.

The period from 1687 through 1789 has become known as the Enlightenment and was filled with great scientific advancements. Examples of these are Sir Isaac Newton’s laws of physics, calculus, Galileo’s work with astronomy, and advancements in medicine.

Louis XVI of France took power not much later. He was a weak monarch, and under him France was the first country on the European mainland to undergo a revolution. The middle class of France began realizing the unfair treatment they were under by the absolute monarchy. They were the poorest class and the ones paying the highest taxes with the least land. France was spending more as a country on wars and luxuries than it was taking in, and this led to the inevitable revolution. Louis XVI called for a meeting of the Estates General to sort out financial problems. The third estate joined with members from the other two to form a National Assembly and swore what has become the Tennis Court Oath to not disband until a constitution had been written. They remained in session until 1791. By the time Louis XVI considered a constitution it was too late. The people of Paris were rioting, and on July 14, 1789 they attacked an old fortress known as the Bastille. In August of 1789 The National Assembly wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Man asserting all citizens rights, and agreed to revoke special privileges of the first two estates. In 1791 CE a constitution was adopted and France was divided in 83 departments. From 1792 through 1795 the National Convention, which replaced the National Assembly ruled France as a Republic. However, at the beginning of 1793 Louis XVI was beheaded, and until 1795 the Reign of Terror took over. During this time anyone suspected of going against the revolution was put to death, and thousands lost their lives. Another Constitution was written in 1795, and the Republic was tried again. Peace lasted this time, but the people were unhappy and wanted a stronger leader.

Napoleon Boneparte took power as a dictator through a coup d’etat and had established peace by 1802 CE. He set up a strong centralized government in Paris and a Bank of France to help the economy recover. He began to collect taxes properly and made national improvements. He also made Catholicism the official religion of France again. Napoleon felt to stay in power he needed military victories. Due to this he started wars with neighboring countries and soon became the most feared leader in the world creating France into the most power country in Europe. This sheer power could not last though, and when Russia broke their alliance with France Napoleon suffered a miserable defeat. Upon returning to France he was again defeated and banished in 1813. Louis XVIII was given the throne. Only two years later Napoleon escaped from banishment and marched on Paris. Shortly thereafter Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain joined forces and defeated Napoleon again. He was once again banished, and died in 1821.

During Louis XVIII restoration to the throne the Congress of Vienna was called. This took place in 1814 and was a Congress of world leaders set up to attempt to restore peace and order to the European continent. Four big nations were represented at the Congress. They were: Austria, represented by Prince Klemens von Metternich; Russia, represented by Czar Alexander I; Great Britain, represented by both the Duke of Wellington, and Lord Castlereagh; and France, represented by Charles de Talleyrand. The leaders wished to return Europe to how it had been before Napoleon, and to realign the borders of their countries now that Napoleon had been removed from power. In many ways these goals were met, though not all former ruling families were able to be returned to power. Although greedy in their realignment of the continents borders, the task was completed. An end was also put to the Holy Roman Empire, and German Confederation of 39 states was formed in its place. To protect everything that had been agreed upon Prussia, Russia, Great Britain, and Austria signed a Quadruple Alliance. When more revolutions broke out shortly after the conference in Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Russia, Great Britain quit the Quadruple Alliance, and France took its place. This alliance sent troops and were able to put quick ends to the revolutions in Spain, Portugal and Naples.

Throughout all this time Italy had remained a group of independent states. However, now strong pressures were beginning to bring it towards the status of a nation. There was much national pride amongst Italian people, as the people who started the Renaissance and for their other contributions to the world. However, Austria stood in the way of Italian unification because it controlled some of the Italian city-states. The largest Italian city-state was Sardinia. In return for helping France in the Crimean War against Russia, France aided Sardinia in defeating Austria in war and gaining control of another Italian city-state, Lombardy. This encouraged a number of other small city-states to join Sardinia. In 1860, Italian leader Giuseppe Garibaldi invaded Sicily and gained southern Italy and the island of Sicily for a unified country. In 1860 a vote was taken for unification and the people voted strongly in favor of it, with the exception of Rome. The kingdom of Italy was formed under Victor Emmanuel II. Later, in 1870, Rome also joined Italy and became the capital.

In 1852 Louis Napoleon, nephew of Napoleon Bonaparte was named Napoleon III, emperor of France. He hoped to destroy the Second Republic in order to gain as much power as his uncle had one held. Soon after receiving power Louis Napoleon began abusing it. He destroyed any sense of democracy because he had supreme power. With this he revoked freedom of speech and of the press. He worked to increase French territory, but was extremely unsuccessful. He joined the Crimean war against Russia with England, but gained nothing. He also tried to invade Mexico during the US Civil War, but the US retaliated as soon as the Civil War ended. His gravest error came when he fought the Franco-Prussian War. France’s defeat ended his rule.

After Napoleon III, the third French Republic took control. It first negotiated a peace treaty with Germany for the Franco Prussian war. France lost land, and was forced to pay one billion dollars in war damages. This started the rule of the Third Republic on a rough note. People began rising up, demanding better conditions, and the revolt was crushed by troops sent by the National Assembly. For a week the two sides fought, and 20,000 French men and women lost their lives. Also under the Third Republic a major scandal took place. Someone had sold secrets from the war office of France to the Germans. Captain Alfred Dreyfus was falsely accused by the National Assembly in order to protect a fellow officer. France was yet to obtain balance in their republic.

During the era from 1700 through 1914 CE Imperialism controlled much of European politics. Nations wanted to expand, but the borders of Europe had become more firmly established. Instead cultures were conquered in Africa and Asia, and controlled by various European governments.

The conquest to control countries outsides of Europe was interrupted by the outbreak of the first World War in 1914 CE. Military alliances began forming between nations, which brought about suspicions and tension. Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy formed a Triple Alliance. In turn, Great Britain, France, and Russia formed the Triple Entente to protect each other against Germany. The final straw leading up to the war was the assassination of Archduke Francis Ferdinand, next in line to the Austrian throne. A Serbian committed the crime so Austria declared war on Serbia. Germany sided with Austria and Russia with Serbia, so in turn France sided with Russia. When Germany marched into Belgium, Great Britain joined the war with France and Russia, and Italy deserted Germany for Great Britain and France. Later in the war the United States joined with Great Britain and France, known as the Allies, as well. Germany had the best trained army in the world, but Great Britain had control of the seas. The sides were even matched. The war lasted until 1918 and eight million soldiers died. The Allies finally came out victorious because Germany and the Central Powers had to worry about a two front war, fighting Russia on the east and France and Great Britain on the west.

The four leaders of the Allied Powers of France, the US, England, and Italy met in Versailles after the war to write the Versailles Treaty. All the Central Powers were forced to give up large amounts of land and pay large sums of money as reparations. The League of Nations was then created to keep peace in the world after the war. This organization proved largely unsuccessful in that it was unable to enforce its decisions.

Between the years 1935 and 1945 CE fascist dictators took over the nations of Italy and Germany. They were Benito Mussolini and Adolf Hitler, respectively. As these parties grew in power another war loomed for Europe in the near future. Then, in August 1939, Hitler signed a non-aggression pact with the Soviet Union. Shortly thereafter, he invaded Poland and England and France declared war on Germany again. Hitler scored early victories and soon took control of France, but Great Britain was not so easy to defeat. Now Great Britain stood alone against Germany, but Hitler decided to invade the Soviet Union and break the non-aggression pact. In 1941 he did so, and Germany was again fighting a two front war. The United States began leasing equipment to Great Britain in the war to be paid for whenever the war ended. The US and Great Britain also signed a charter that neither wanted to gain territory. When the Japanese, allies of Germany, attacked the US in December of 1941, they too joined the war with Great Britain and France. The Axis powers: Japan, Italy, and Germany continued defeating the Allies: Great Britain, France, the US, and Russia until 1942. Here the British, American, Canadian, and free French troops banded together and attacked Hitler from Normandy France. They began to push the Germans out of France and into their own country. By the end of 1944 France had been liberated, and the Germans surrendered in 1945. The three big Allied leaders: Winston Churchill of Great Britain, Franklin D. Roosevelt of the US, and Joseph Stalin of the Soviet Union met at Yalta at the end of the war. Here plans were drawn up to form the United Nations. Later they met again in Potsdam with Harry Truman replacing Franklin Roosevelt. Here a peace settlement was drawn up for Germany, and plans for the Japanese surrender were drawn up.

The United Nations was founded in June of 1945 with the intention of keeping the peace. It has five permanent members: Great Britain, the Soviet Union, France, China, and the United States.

Winston Churchill, prime minister of Great Britain immediately following World War II described the division between eastern and western Europe like an “iron curtain.” This led to the break out of a cold war between the Soviet Union and eastern Europe and the US and Western Europe. Although not violent, it was a war of politics lasting long after World War II ended.

The rebuilding of Europe after the war was long and costly. France had 1800 cities in need of rebuilding. In order to restore French nationalism and pride Charles de Gaulle was named president of the Fourth French Republic. As a leader in World War II, de Gaulle had greatly boosted French morale, but he was an unpopular leader and left office in a year. In 1958 he returned to power and the Fifth French Republic was established with de Gaulle as president. He took large steps in rebuilding French pride after the costly war.

Italy took a long time in recovering from the war. Not only was it hurting financially from war, and in need of repairs, but its government was left in shambles by Mussolini. A republic was formed in 1946 and was replaced almost annually. Even into the 1960’s Italy’s government was still challenged by the Communist party.

Spain and Portugal were neutral during the war, but had Fascist governments and sympathized with the Axis powers. Due to this fact they were kept from the United Nations until 1955. More currently, France elected Francois Mitterrand president in 1981. He was a socialist and nationalized five major industries and most private banks. In 1982 minimum wage was raised, however so were taxes. Mitterrand also committed France to NATO once more.

Politics remained unstable in Italy long after World War II, but the economy managed to recover fairly well by joining the Common Market. Southern Italy is still more poor and agricultural, however. Terrorism was a problem and in 1978 the former premier, Aldo Moro, was kidnapped by a terrorist group and killed.

Both Spain and Portugal gained democracy. Spain, in 1975, and moderate parties gained power. Portugal was given free elections in 1976, and socialists took control of the nation.

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