Agriculture- From the Roots

From the earliest days of human society, life has been greatly influenced by food. The ancient tribal societies developed in one of two manners: agricultural, farming societies, or hunters and gatherers. Now, in a world where those who clung to the traditional lifestyle of hunters and gatherers are dwindling to nothing, the advantages of food production seem obvious, for in the words of Thomas Hobbes the lifestyle of hunter-gathers was "nasty, brutish, and short." However, at the earliest stages of the development of food production, the choice was not nearly as clear cut, and it has been speculated that only for today’s First World citizens has food production actually brought about a longer, more comfortable life span.(Diamond 104) So why did it develop at all?

The main reason as indicated by history is the need to support a larger, concentrated population. (Smith 105) Wild plants and animals were not a dependable source of food, and the ability to domesticate and breed them led to a larger food supply. (Tannahill 26) This basic motivation, whether chosen consciously or unconsciously, led to the domestication of different animals and crops throughout the world. Prehistoric agriculture developed mainly in the areas of the Middle East, Asia, Africa, and in Europe. One important crop, rice, was most likely first domesticated in Northern Thailand and has since "fed more people over a longer period of time than has any other crop." (Huke 2) Rice is one of many grains that were to prove important to a developing world. (Tannahill 32)

The most important crops that emerged in the earliest eras of agriculture’s development were the various grains that humanity sustained itself on, and indeed, humanity had a "sudden and extensive dependence on grain." (Tannahill 22) The raised bread that we know today was reputedly discovered in Egypt. (51) The yeast component was most likely garnered from the use of ale instead of water on occasion to mix the dough. (52) Cereals today "account for one half of all calories consumed by humans." (Diamond 125) In many areas in the past, grains actually launched food production, aiding in the transition stage between hunters and gatherers. (126) Throughout the ancient world, people were domesticating corn, rice, wheat, barley, and sugarcane, even where they domesticated little else, such as in New Guinea and Ethiopia. (127)

A limiting factor on agricultural development has always been the available technology for the cultivation and domestication of wild crops and animals. The earliest tools were simple devices of stone and wood, including the infamous sickle, which was used to gather grain, and a rudimentary form of the plough. (Encarta. "Agriculture") The development of irrigation, mainly in the Fertile Crescent and Egypt, allowed for farming where previously there was not enough rain to sustain crops.

During the period from 2500 BC to 500 AD, advancements in both the storage and raising of crops allowed for both increased trading of crops and for city populations to be successfully supported. (Encarta. "Agriculture") As the demand for food increased, irrigation systems had to be expanded and methods for transporting water further and further from the rivers were developed. Without such advancements, it would have been impossible to support the large population density in small areas, for no longer was the world dominated by a rural agricultural society of independent farmers. (Smith 112) However, the advent of the dark ages brought a decline in agricultural innovation, and with it came the plague, which led to a decrease in food production. But when the population increased, it was again necessary for an expansion in agricultural production. (Encarta. "Agriculture")

One agricultural development of great import to come from this scientific revolution was the idea of crop rotation, which involved the alteration of legumes with grain, which spread from England, a bastion of scientific farming due to the small amount of land available to feed the large population, to the Americas and the rest of Europe. (Tannahill 106) And with the industrial revolution of the 1700s came farm machinery, which allowed for the defeat of the principles of Thomas Malthus. To further this goal, the concept of hybridisation arose, which lead to hardier crops, which was especially effective with wheat and corn. (Tannahill 42)

The act of hybridization is the cross breeding, so to speak, of plants of different varieties in order to produce a new plant with desirable traits from both parent varieties. (Diamond 179) Less desirable traits also enter the combination, however, so hybridization is usually followed by several generations of selection. (140)This allows breeders to discard undesirable plants, thus creating the "perfect" crop through generations of breeding. (Encarta. "Dairy Farming") Crops that have benefited from this process include corn, wheat, and many others.

Corn in particular had highly increased crop yields after the introduction of hybrids in about 1933. (Logsdon 92) Hybrid corns are stronger than the inbred, or self pollinated, types. (Logsdon 18) However, the increased vigor that is characteristic of new hybrids only lasts for one generation, as it is not passed to its offspring, so continual hybridization has helped to "double U.S. corn yields since the 1940s." (Logsdon 49) This boom in crop yield is so enticing to farmers that "almost all the corn now grown in the United States and Europe is started annually from hybrid seed." (Encarta. “Agriculture”)

One side benefit of hybridization is the ability to increase production of a crop in different regions and climates. For example, a breed of corn with a very high seasonal yield that is adapted to growing in a warmer climate could be hybridized with a staple variety of corn that grows farther north so that the advantage of increased production can be combined with northern hardiness, with the added bonus of hybrid vigor. In this manner crop production and resistance to diseases can be maximized, which is similar to domestication.

Domestication is, by definition, a process by which humans "tame" a wild plant. Yet one of the contradictions of this process is that the resulting domesticated plant often is quite different from the wild variety. This can be explained by the fact that most societies chose to domesticate the same plants they had grown in the wild, and thus the seeds they gathered to start their crop reflected whatever they had chosen from nature's offerings. (Encarta. “Plant Breeding”) Thus, a process of selection occurred, and the characteristics common to the new domesticated plants were a reflection of the most desirable of wild plants.

One of the traits of most domesticated plants, being seedless, runs quite contrary to the purpose of fruits on wild plants, that is, "to serve as a vehicle for dispersing seeds." (Encarta. “Plant Breeding”) Yet gatherers would seek fruits that consisted more of edible flesh than seeds, to maximize their food for the time spent cultivating the fruit. (Diamond 104) Thus, human selection can "completely reverse the evolutionary purpose of a wild fruit." The work of modern agricultural scientists in developing seedless varieties of other fruits was a natural extension of these effects as brought upon by human preference. (Diamond 93) Certainly this was the belief of Charles Darwin, who began his book The Origin of Species by discussing "how our domesticated plants and animals arose through artificial selection by humans." (Encarta. “Dairy Farming”)

The neat and tidy explanation of selection has one gaping hole, however, that being the reasons behind the varying amounts of time and effort required to domesticate different plants. This can, however, be explained by modern genetics. The mutations necessary to produce a variety of wheat that would be both easy to cultivate and pleasing in taste were very few, and this combined with an ease of storage and their reproduction by self pollination led to wheat being domesticated almost immediately. (Smith 53) Other crops, however, required more complex mutations to become useful to humans that did not often occur in the wild, and thus were not quickly domesticated. (Diamond 112)

Like with crops, humans have manipulated animals to serve as both a food supply and in other capacities. The goal remains the same today as it was during the development of prehistoric agriculture: "to generate animal products at the highest rate of return for investment." (Smith 49) This is mainly accomplished through selective breeding to emphasize whatever characteristic is most desirable in a certain variety of livestock, for example, when raising cows for beef one would emphasize size whereas when raising them for milk one would emphasize their capacity to produce milk. (Encarta. “Dairy Farming”)

The desirable characteristics animals are bred for reflect in many ways the first benefits domesticated animals provided to those human societies possessing them. Such animals "provided meat, milk products, fertilizer, land transport, leather, military assault vehicles, plow traction, and wool." (Diamond 109) The major animals that were domesticated and became important to the world agriculture were chosen for these qualities. These animals were the cow, sheep, goat, pig, and horse. (Smith 24)

The domesticated versions of these once wild animals have, through animal husbandry, become "transformed into something that is more useful to humans." (Diamond 108) Compared to their wild ancestors, these domesticated animals are different in size, intelligence, and their usefulness in food production. Now, these domesticated animals account for 28% of the world's food production, so it can safely be said that animal husbandry has done its work well. (Encarta. “Animal Husbandry”) Of the cows which support nearly the entire dairy industry, hybridization has led to only 5% remaining purebred. (Logsdon 25) The hybrid species are, through animal husbandry, bred to yield more milk to supply the large demand on the market.

Besides cows, pigs are main animals of importance in the agricultural market. Unique among most domesticated animals for their status as omnivores- most domesticated animals, including the others among the major 5, are herbivores- pigs are "well adapted for the production of meat because they grow and mature rapidly." (Logsdon 79) These natural characteristics may explain why pigs were among the first animals domesticated, at a date of approximately 8000 BC in China and Southwestern Asia. (Diamond 98) However, had pigs been purely carnivorous in their diet choice, it is likely they would not have been domesticated at all- raising small herbivores to feed them would have required far more meat being put into the pig than coming out in the end, which certainly would have limited their usefulness. (Diamond 112) Thus, many characteristics influenced both the domestication and breeding of these animals, including rate of growth and diet.

Unfortunately, the domestication of crops and animalsdoes not automatically indicate the infallibility of our food sources, and history is filled with food scares where animals and crops have carried disease to their unwary consumers. Also, some methods of farming, such as artificial fertilizer, have had a negative environmental impact, such as the seeping of chemicals into our underground water supplies. And now, moral questions have been drawn into the realm of agriculture, as the questionable practice of genetically modifying crops promises to help the food supply continue to meet the demand of the population, but at what cost? Ultimately, the development of agriculture is far from finished, and the possibility of food shortages in the future looms on the horizon.

References

"Animal Husbandry," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2000. © 1993-1999 Microsoft Corporation.

"Dairy Farming," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2000. © 1993-1999 Microsoft Corporation.

"Hog," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2000. © 1993-1999 Microsoft Corporation.

"Plant Breeding," Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2000. © 1993-1999 Microsoft Corporation.

"Corn" Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2000. © 1993-1999 Microsoft Corporation.

"Wheat" Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2000. © 1993-1999 Microsoft Corporation.

"Agriculture" Microsoft® Encarta® Encyclopedia 2000. © 1993-1999 Microsoft Corporation.

Logsdon, Gene. At Nature’s Pace: Farming and the American Dream. New York: Pantheon Books, 1994.

Fox, Nicols. It Was Probably Something You Ate. New York: Penguin Books, 1999.

Mather, Robin. A Garden of Unearthly Delights. New York: Penguin Books, 1995.

Tannahill, Reay. Food in History. New York: Crown Publisher’s Inc, 1973.

Jacob, H.E. Six Thousand Years of Bread. New York: The Lyons Press, 1944 reprint 1997.

Diamond, Jared. Guns, Germs, and Steel. New York: W.W. Norton & Co. 1997.

Smith, Bruce. The Emergence of Agriculture. New York: Scientific American Library, 1995.

Huke, R.E. and Huke, E.H. Rice: Then and Now International Rice Research Institute, 1990.

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