Rome itself continued to expand as well.  Massive walls encircled the traditional seven hills, originally thought to be built by Servius Tullius in the 6th century BC, but are now commonly attributed to civic projects following the Gallic sack.   Other such projects undertaken during 312 BC included the Appian Way, which extended from Rome to Capua, and the Aqua Appia, or Appian Aqueduct, which brought fresh water to Rome from springs 12 kilometers east of the city.

The Roman hills, especially the Palatine, were the homes of the wealthy, while the poor huddled in valleys, particularly the Subura, northeast of the forum.  The valley between the Palatine and the Aventine had become the Circus Maximus by the end of the 4th century.  It was at this time important temples, such as that to Juno Maneta at the north end of the Capitoline, were now built.  Roman armies venturnig though South Italy and Siciliy brought back a richness of architectural and cultural knowlege to Rome, along with Greek artifacts, tastes, and practices.

During the early 1st century, political instability devloped between the Optimates, the ultra-conservative monopolizers of power in the upper classes, and the Populares, a party controlled by ambitious politicians from lesser known families who had no choice but to appeal directly to the people for support.  The Gracci brothers had fought for the Plebian rights in the late 2nd century BC, but now politicians in the party, unable to get their way in the Senate, went to the people.  One of them by the name of Marius held the consulship an unconstitutional five years in a row as a plebian, and was succeeded by the dictator Sulla.  As a great rivalry was developing between these two, Rome became mixed up in eastern wars with King Mithridates of Pontus.   Sulla laid seige to Athens, at the time an ally to the king, and it feel in 86 BC.   Sulla followed up by defeating Mithridates' armies in two successive battles at Boestia, and then returned to Italy in 85 BC to find that his powers had been usurped by Marius during his absense. 

Irate, Sulla chose to land his army, and augmented by Pompey's three legions, attacked Rome.  He defeated the opposition and Marius' supporters fled, although Sulla is said to have been able to massare many of them.  Sulla proceeded to alter the constitution, making the Senate morepowerful and tribunes weaker.  He died in 78 BC after an amazing career, but his efforts to reestablish aristrocratic political dominance did little to curb political undrest, which soon resurfaced under the Populares' new leader, Julius Caesar.

Caesar had been in his early 20s when Sulla died, and his youth and fortuitous absence from Rome had saved from death for being a Marius supporter, depite his birth into the senatorial class.   Governor of Cisalpine and Transalpine Gaul, as well is the Roman province of Illyricum during 58 BC, over the course of the next nine years Caesar conquered everything west of the Rhine river.  In the process he built up a veteran army completely loyal to him.  The Senate, fearful of his power, appealed to the great general Pompey to get the job done of riddng Rome of Caesar, initiating yet another Civil War.  Caesar was victorious, but even though he did not massacre or seize the defeateds' property, he was prone to enemies in the Senate and assassinated in 44 BC.  This brought on another civil war, peace coming only witht he defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra by Caesar's adopted nephew, Octavian.  He gained Caesar's power, and on January 16, 27 BC the Senate bestowed uon him the title of Augustus and Imperator.

Augustus' reign marked the beginning of the Principate and the end of the Republic, forever changing the face of Roman institution.

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