A land beloning to no one

          Antarctica has no indigenous population and was the last continent to be discovered and explored, it occupies a unique place in world politics and international relations. It is different from the Arctic, the land parts of which belong to individual. It is more like the high seas, away from the coastlines of individual countries, which are governed internationally through a United Nations Law of the Sea treaty. The key principle of the Antarctic Treaty is that the continent should be managed in the "interests of science and the progress of all mankind". Some have argued that the Antarctic should come under the auspices of the United Nations, but theTreaty countries, which in any case represent the countries of more than 80% of the world's population, have resisted this, arguing that the best people to manage the continent are those with the necessary knowledge gained from exploration and scientific research. The political importance of the Antarctic probably peaked during the Cold War, when both superpowers cooperated to keep Antarctica demilitarised. The Antarctic Treaty is regarded as a model of international cooperation and it was the only international forum in which the then apartheid government of South Africa was able to participate, and even Argentina and UK cooperated on matters Antarctic during their conflict in the South Atlantic.

Political Claims

          Early scientific interest in the polar regions focused on the Arctic. In 1879, the International Polar Commission met in Hamburg, Germany, and the 11 participating nations organised the First International Polar Year of 1882-83. The Germans established a station on Sub Antarctic South Georgia Island as part of this year. In 1932-33, the Second International Polar Year took place, with 34 nations participating, but no expeditions were mounted to Antarctica. The International Polar Years were succeeded by the International Geophysical Year (IGY) in 1957-58. The idea of the IGY was adopted by the International Council of Scientific Unions (ICSU), and widened to include the scientific study of the whole earth. More and more nations showed interest in joining. Coastal Antarctic bases were established in the summer of 1955-56 and inland stations the next summer for the official opening of the IGY on 1 July 1957. Following the success of the IGY, the 12 nations involved in Antarctic science - Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, United Kingdom, United States, and the USSR - agreed that some more permanent legal regime would be desirable. Probably the strongest motive was to keep Antarctica demilitarised during the "Cold War." A conference on Antarctica convened in Washington DC in 1959 reached agreement on wording, and the Antarctic Treaty was signed on 1 December 1959. With final ratification by each of the 12 governments the Treaty entered into force on 23 June 1961. The achievement of the Antarctic Treaty was to create an entire continent free of military conflict, and reserved only for scientific investigation.

          The Antarctic Treaty was signed in 1959 by the 12 countries which had Antarctic stations during the International Geophysical Year (1957-58). These 'original signatories' were Argentina, Australia, Belgium, Chile, France, Japan, New Zealand, Norway, South Africa, United Kingdom, the United States and the USSR. The Treaty came into operation in 1961, and since then a further 14 countries have joined the original 12 as "Consultative Parties", i.e. 26 nations have full voting rights at meetings. Any Party to the Treaty which shows a genuine interest in Antarctica by conducting scientific research activities is entitled to become a Consultative Party. All decisions are made by consensus, i.e. all Consultative Parties must agree. The Treaty is open to any member of the United Nations and aims to further the principles of the UN Charter. It stipulates that the Antarctic should forever be used for peaceful purposes and prohibits military activity. Freedom of scientific research is guaranteed, and inspections can be carried out to ensure the Treaty is being observed. It applies to the area south of 60°South latitude. Seven nations claim territory, or 'sovereignty rights', in Antarctica: Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, New Zealand, Norway, and the United Kingdom, and two reserve the right to claim territory: the United States and Russia. These claims are not universally recognised and the Antarctic Treaty puts them legally on-hold to prevent disputes. Antarctic Treaty meetings are held every year, and deal with a range of scientific, environmental and operational issues related to cooperative activities in Antarctica. There are plans to establish a permanent secretariat for the Treaty, and Hobart has been put forward to host the office.

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