Indonesia is home to many different ways of life, varied cultures, and diverse beliefs. It is a result of their history. The islands of Indonesia have not been united for long. Before they gained independence (in 1949) and became a republic, their only unity was that the islands were all under colonization by the Dutch. None of the native empires ever ruled over the whole region that is now Indonesia. Within the islands are some 300 different ethnic groups. Because of their diverse culture and beliefs, there has been tension among some groups, conflicts among cultures, even rebellion, and riots.

The peoples of Southern Asia have extensively migrated in their history. As a result there is a mix of more than 100 ethnicities and languages in the archipelago of Indonesia. 13,000 islands make up the archipelago of Indonesia, the former Dutch colony. There are also more followers of Islam than in any other country, and this nation, once called the Spice Islands, is home to wildlife and natural resources, although they are being threatened by the growing population.

Their history goes back into ancient times, as Indonesia is home to fossil remains of the Java Man, named after the island on which the fossils were found. People later migrated and found their home in the islands, and culture developed.

Hinduism, brought over by Asians immigrants, has greatly affected the culture of Indonesia. With them, came their skill of wet-rice cultivation. There were also individual beliefs of the natives inland, who lived in the remote mountains and practiced religious beliefs of their own. The people began to live in political groups, no larger than family-based tribes. Indonesia has long been influenced by politics.

Various tribes inhabited the islands, and set up different kingdoms and empires. They were mostly ruled by totalitarian monarchies, with different rulers in control of certain regions. The hierarchy was religious, as kings were regarded as divine, or god-like. Many rulers over a great period of time, established utter faith and reverence in their people, by establishing this form of government. It enhanced their control and helped them maintain their power over the people. This allowed them to execute any deed they desired, while remaning in good standing with their citizens, thus giving them absolute power.

Time elapsed, and the spreading of the Islamic faith increased. The Muslim faith reached Indonesia, and a new kingdom arose on one of the islands.

Dutch Control & Influence

In the early 1600s, the Dutch East India Company, made up of trading business, established trade relationships with Indonesia. Coen, the Dutch governor-general, arrived on the island of Java and established a headquarters, which became a Dutch-ruled colony. This headquarters later became Jakarta, the country's capitol. They introduced coffee and other crops to the area. Their interference with the Muslim kingdom grew tense and the kingdom became divided. Coen tried to stop the network of international traders that seemed to be reaping the bounties of the islands. The Dutch organized the growth of certain products in order to gain a monopoly. A monopoly is a total control of a commodity, that allows for the manipulation of prices. The Dutch continued to expand their trading rights and political control.

While the Dutch were in power, there were some clashes and divisions, though some regions remained autonomous. But the Dutch and the peoples of Indonesia were drawn into a unique trade relationship. As the Dutch penetrated the Indonesian society, they expanded their control. In the 1800s, they wavered between opening up to individual enterprise or going back to the monopoly system of government manipulation.

The Chinese Move In

The Chinese have long been viewed as a minority in Indonesia, and used as scapegoats. They were considered to be humans with fewer rights and opportunities. They have also been a source of jealousy to the Indonesians, for throughout history they had been successful in business, succeeding commercially and gaining prosperity. Discrimination against them by the natives has long been a problem. The Chinese brought to the islands yet another religion, this time Buddhism.

The Growth of Nationalism

The Dutch had a substantial amount of control and power over the people, who didn't possess many rights. The Dutch began to introduce the Ethical Policy; farming, limited health, educational services and opportunities were developed for the people. Social elements emerged, and the Indonesians began to compete with the commercial class. Because at this time, the commercial class was predominantly Chinese, further jealousy was caused. However, the Indonesian entrepreneurs began to rise, and develop the market system of the colonies.

Islam spread and, at the beginning of the 20th century, was a predominant religion. An anti-Dutch nationalist movement started brewing. In 1912, the Islamic Union was established as a protective measure for batik merchants. Groups like this gained many members. Nationalism grew, and an even more aggressive plan was adopted by the Dutch government after a failing Communist-led uprising in the late twenties.

Sukarno, not a Muslim, continued to lead more nationalist movements in the twenties. He was in support of a total independence and founded the Indonesian Nationalist Party in 1927. The Dutch arrested him and others, but the party maintained its momentum. After the World Wars, Japan invaded and occupied the islands, and they gave Sukarno figurative governmental freedom in order to gain their support. It was done with arrogant dominance, because they had concerns and fears about their safety and feared their existence. In the time of their occupation, thousands of people were forced into harsh labor, causing many deaths. The Dutch hold on Indonesia was getting weaker after Germans invaded their country during the war.

The Japanese established military headquarters and put the Indonesian people into training. They promised the Indonesians independence and in the meantime offered limited autonomy. However, the Japanese had great fears of being attacked by the Allies. During the occupation, Japan was harsh and restricting, which had a direct effect on the Indonesian people. The economy was degrading.

The people of Indonesia have long been subdued by foreign control, used and ruled over by a dominating country. The people have been forced to work under backbreaking labor and have succumbed to kingdoms and harsh invaders throughout their lives. Finally, however, Indonesia was to become independent. Unfortunately, their government was to turn sour and corrupt in the later years.

Independence, and a Republic

Two days after Japan's surrender to the Allies, Sukarno and Hatta declared the independent Republic of Indonesia. The two became president and vice-president. The Dutch attacked, however, claiming that the Indonesians had betrayed a transaction that was supposed to restore Dutch control.

During Sukarno's presidency, the name of the RUSI changed to the Unitary State of Indonesia. While he was president, the government undertook the difficult task of trying into being a state more reflective of its many cultures and ethnic groups. They had to deal with conflicts, uprisings, and anti-republican movements in support of the Dutch. The government was criticized for being corrupt, malignant, and ineffectual, while lacking management of the regions. They believed that the government, which they now depended on, should do more to unify the regions of the islands and make it more like one country. The people never had a true democracy where they had an active part in the government. They have long been under a variety of rules, or divided up into various strict kingdoms. Having succumbed to this kind of rule, they were very dependent on the government, and their trade depended on it as well. They expected the government to cover all of their needs. It was a approaching the state a communist environment.

Sukarno brought to the government what he called "Guided Democracy". This would give the president more control, which would give him more authority to implement what he wished, regardless of what the people desired or needed. The outside islands, which didn't have many social ties with the main islands, became bitter towards a government ruling from the center of the region. This was a result of several factors, such as ignorance, or bitter resentment, that can easily be spurned by the lower class when dependant on the wealthy class for money and support - as is the case with communism. Although Indonesia was a republic, communism had great affect within the government, in that the government equally affected the citizens.

Some members of the United Nations were against the attacks. The UN Good Offices Commission was created, and an agreement was established between the two sides in 1948, named the Renville Agreement. The Dutch had blockaded certain republican territory that they claimed possession of, and it caused severe economic difficulties. The Indonesians gained building support for military action, rather than diplomacy. Another Communist-led uprising emerged against the leadership of the republic. Later that year, however, the Dutch challenged the agreement by attacking. There was supposed to be a cease-fire, or "peace", but the capital was captured and Sukarno and Hatta were sent in exile under arrest.

Finally, after the international community urged the Dutch to let go of their hold on Indonesia, a conference was held. The Dutch controlled Netherlands agreed to grant Indonesia autonomy, with the exception of the western region of West Irian. This later became Irian Jaya. It was now the federal Republic of the United States of Indonesia.

A Cry for Autonomy, & A New Leader

The region of Sumatra, with supporters in Sulawesi, proclaimed their autonomy from the Unitary State of Indonesia. They called themselves the Revolutionary Government of the Republic of Indonesia; with this title they declared their freedom. They even gained support from countries such as the United States and Taiwan. The central government opposed this, however, and they soon regained control of the islands.

Sukarno had now fully implemented his "Guided Democracy". He faced the Netherlands and demanded, in the name of his power, that they surrender the western region of West Irian that was still technically under Dutch control. Eventually, it did become a part of Indonesia.

Sukarno opposed the forming of Malaysia. The economy was worsening. The government of Indonesia increased their power, and the Communist group gained strength. Tensions boiled, resulting in a coup (or a stragetically planned plot by a leader) attempted in 1965. Led by a Lieutenant of the palace guard, they brutally murdered some of the top generals of the army. General Suharto, head of the army's strategic command, put a stop to it with his power, taking control of the army himself. Slowly his control over the government grew. By 1966, he had eased Sukarno out of power. The Communist party was charged for starting the coup attempt that was suppressed by Suharto. In response, the government's army, along with the support of Muslim groups, went forth and massacred Communists in the later part of 1965. Many lives perished in the bloody, vengeful mass murder that was taken by the government's army and their Muslim supporters. It is said that between 300,000 to 1 million lives perished in this holocaust. They didn't stop at just killing Communists. They continued on in their rampage, arresting thousands of people that were supposedly involved. Some of these prisoners are still in jail for the crime, and executions have taken place all the way up into the 1990s. Of the thousands under arrest, only 800 received trial. Precisely how much justice they received, or even if they were guilty, in unknown.

Suharto's Presidency

Suharto implemented what he called a "New Order", supposedly adopted from more "pro-Western" policies. It was not until 1968 that he was even officially elected president.

The elections of Indonesia were manipulated by the government, tightly controlled so that certain leaders can get into office, or stay in office. So, the people's free choice to vote is counter acted by the government's power to manipulate their own elections of politicians. Suharto was kept in office all the way into the 1990s because of this. They routinely returned him to presidency, at each of the five-year intervals of elections.

The government-operated oil enterprise fell in debt causing an economic crisis. The only way they could get out was by receiving money from foreign aids such as the United States.

The economy of Indonesia is full of inequalities between those associated with the government and the individual citizen. The government itself is wealthy, while the people, in many situations are poor. Suharto promoted policies of different kinds to try to benefit the economy, but Indonesia never truly stood strong, meaning the people, the true country, never rose to the success that a country likes to see in its market.

Thus, the people have become dependant on a government which has continually failed to provide for them.

---->On to Indonesia's Past Decade