The flame-thrower

  The flame-thrower was not invented in the twentieth century, as most people would naturally assume. If one considers a flame-thrower to be a device capable of emitting a continuous stream of flame in warfare, it was invented by the Chinese by the tenth century AD. An earlier form, which might more properly be called a 'flame-squirter', was used in 675 by Callinicus in defence of Byzantium. It had a 'siphon' which apparently pumped flame by means of a single-acting force-pump which was rather like a large syringe (invented in the West by Ctesibius in the third century BC). The proto-flame-thrower of the Byzantines was apparently incapable of ejecting a continuous stream of flame; it sent out a burst of flame, was repumped, and then gave another burst.
  The reason for the superiority of the Chinese device, and the reason we a consider it to be the first genuine flame-thrower, was the continuous stream of flame made possible by the Chinese invention of the double-acting piston bellows, which was also used in chemical warfare by the early fourth century BC for spraying soldiers with clouds of poison gas. The superiority of Chinese metallurgy was also apparent here, as the flame-thrower was made of the very best cartridge-quality brass, containing 70 per cent copper.
  What was it that the flame-thrower actually threw? What was burnt to make this stream of fire? According to Needham, it was either gasoline or kerosene, in other words, a 'distilled light fraction of petroleum'. The Chinese had stills for manufacturing this and they certainly used petroleum products. But there is no need to think that the Chinese actually invented this, for J.R. Partington in his History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder (1960) concluded that the 'Greek Fire' used by the Byzantines in their flame-thrower was the same substance. And Needham points out that 'Greek Fire came into China by about 900 AD.'
  The first use of 'Greek Fire' in a flame-thrower in China appears to be in the year 904. Lu Chen, in his Historical Memoir of the Nine States, recounts an engagement of that date and says: 'Cheng Fan's men let off flying fire machines, which burnt the Lung-sha Gate . . .' We have a far clearer account of flame-throwers in a description of the naval battle on the Yangtze River in 975, preserved by Shih Hsu-Pai in his book Talks at Fisherman's Rock:

  Chu Ling-Pin as Admiral was attacked by the Sung emperor's forces in strength. Chu was in command of a large warship more than ten decks high, with flags flying and drums beating. The imperial ships were smaller but they came down the river attacking fiercely, and the arrows flew so fast that the ships under Admiral Chu were like porcupines. Chu hardly knew what to do. So he quickly projected petrol from flame-throwers to destroy the enemy. The Sung forces could not have withstood this, but all of a sudden a north wind sprang up and swept the smoke and flames over the sky towards his own ships and men. As many as - 150,000 soldiers and sailors were caught in this and overwhelmed, whereupon Chu, being overcome with grief, flung himself into the flames and died.

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