Terms
Europe/Germany first
Winston Churchill and FDR decided on a strategy of Europe first (defeating Germany first) at a conference in Washington shortly after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor.
Second Front Controversy
The Soviets wanted the Allies to create a second front to ease the pressure off the Soviets. The Allies did not open a second front until 1944, angering the Russians.
North Africa campaign
General Dwight D. Eisenhower, an appointee of Chief of Staff General George C. Marshall, lead the attack on Field Marshall Erwin Rommel’s German Afrika Corps at the Suez Canal, a vital Allied supply line. British and German troops were at a stalemate until the Germans were routed in late October 1942. Other Allied forces now attacked Rommel in Tunisia. Even with reinforcements from Hitler, the Germans were defeated by May 1943.
D-Day; Operation Overlord
On June 6, 1944, Operation Overlord was launched under General Eishenhower. Fighter planes and ships bombed the Nazis as 176,000 men landed on the beaches of Normandy. This was the beginning of the Allied recapture of France.
Coral Sea; Midway; Okinawa; Iwo Jima
In May 1942, Japan attacked the Allies in the Battle of Coral Sea in order to cut off Australia. The United States was able to force the Japanese to retreat for the first time. In June 1942, the U.S. intercepted Japanese plans and Admiral Nimitz lead a U.S. victory at Midway, the turning point of the war in the Pacific. In February 1945, Admiral Nimitz lead a costly victory in Iwo Jima. The U.S. was now able to fire-bomb Japan. In April 1945, the U.S. won in Okinawa as Japan turned to kamikaze pilots.
U.S.-Chinese relations
In 1942, General Joseph Stilwell was able to bring supplies to China. The U.S. supporter Generalissimo Chiang Kai-shek. Chiang hoarded supplies and did little against Japan. Stilwell warned the Joint Chiefs of Chiang’s actions, but Chiang responded by asking for Stilwell’s dismissal. In fall 1944, FDR sent General Patrick J. Hurley to replace Stilwell. Hurley was unsuccessful in his efforts to unite Chiang and Mao Tse-tung, the Communist leader.
Island-hopping; “leap-frogging”
This was the U.S. strategy of taking one island at a time in the Pacific.
Dumbarton Oaks Conference
At this January 1942 Washington Conference, FDR and Churchill discussed the formation of the United Nations.
Casablanca Conference/ “unconditional surrender”
In this January 1943 conference, Roosevelt and Churchill agreed to attack Europe from the South first. They also issued a statement demanding “unconditional surrender” from the Germans.
The Holocaust/ “Final Solution”
Adolf Hitler used Jews, Russians, Gypsies, and many others as scapegoats for Germany’s problems. In order to create a “superior Aryan race,” Hitler sent “undesirables” to extermination camps at Dachau, Auschwitz, Buchenwald, Beger-Belsen, and other places across Europe.
Tehran Conference
In a November 1943 conference in Tehran, Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin met to plan a Northern invasion of Europe. There would be a massive invasion of France by the U.S. and Great Britain while Russia would attack the Germans from the east.
Manhattan Project; Dr. Robert Oppenheimer
Oppenheimer lead this project to create the atomic bomb. Albert Einstein had written to the U.S. warning of German nuclear weapons using uranium on August 2, 1939. The atomic bomb was ready by the summer of 1945.
Potsdam Conference
At this July 26 conference in Germany, the Allies threatened total destruction of Japan if they did not surrender immediately. Japan failed to surrender by August 3.
A-Bomb decision; factors influencing
Harry Truman was given the final decision in this process. When Japan failed to surrender on August 3, an atomic bomb was dropped on August 6 on Hiroshima. Three days later, an atomic bomb was dropped on Nagasaki. Truman believed the bombs were necessary to save American lives and keep the Soviets from entering the war.
The Nisei; relocation of
The Nisei were the 70,000 American-born descendants of Japanese ancestors. During WWII, they were relocated to relocation centers which were barracks that were fenced in by barbed wires. There was no evidence of treason by these Japanese-Americans. The conditions in these relocation centers were poor; one family shared one room which had only cots, blankets, and a bare light bulb. Japanese-Americans lost over $500 million in property and their industries. 8,000 Japanese-Americans choose to emigrate to Japan, an unknown country to them in order to escape these relocation centers.
Hirabyashi and Korematsu cases
In the 1943 Hirabyashi case, the Supreme Court justified relocation by stating that residents with ethnic affiliations with the enemy were a greater source of danger than those of different ancestry. The 1944 Korematsu case approved the removal of the Nisei from the West Coast. Justice Frank Murphy, one of the three dissenters from the policy, attacked the decision as racist. Justice Robert Jackson warned against such precedents. Circuit Court Judge William Denman attacked the decision by saying that it justified the gas chambers of Dachau.
Executive Order #8802
This Roosevelt order in 1941 required employers in defense industries to make jobs available without discrimination because of race, creed, color, or national origin.
“Double V” Campaign
The NAACP claimed that WWII was a “Double V” Campaign for victory at home against racism and discrimination and abroad against the enemy.
Lanham Act
This 1940 Act provided federal aid to communities that had to absorb large war-related populations. Funds for daycare centers, hospitals, sewer systems, police and firefighting facilities, and recreation centers were given out. However, the funds only provided daycare for 107,000 children and many children roamed the street. Juvenile crime increased.
The 1943 race riots
This summer was similar to 1919 and had 250 racial conflicts in 47 cities. 25 blacks and nine whites were killed. White mobs roamed cities while attacking blacks. Blacks tossed rocks at police and pulled white passengers off streetcars. One councilman suggested building a bigger ghetto and penning the blacks up. The federal government did practically nothing.
“Zoot Suit” riots
Mexican-American teenager in Los Angeles had formed street gangs. They had ducktail haircuts and wore “zoot suits” (long coats with wide-brimmed hats and long-watch chains). Whites invaded Mexican-American neighborhoods during four days in June, taking the Mexicans’ clothes and burning them and cutting the Mexicans’ hair.
Women and the war effort
Over six million women entered the labor force. 75% of the new workers were married and 3.7 million were mothers. Most were also over 35. Most women hoped to keep their jobs even after the war.
Demographic patterns during the war
More people moved to urban areas. Marriage and divorce increased. Women in the workforce increased.
National War Labor Board
This group was created in 1942 by President Roosevelt and was referred to as the Supreme Court for labor disputes. Unions were allowed to enroll as many new members as they wanted, but workers were not required to join a union. This was a compromise between the union’s closed shop (only union members) and management’s open shop.
War Production Board
This Board was created a month after Pearl Harbor by FDR. Factories were converted from civilian to military production. For example, a factory that had produced silk ribbons started to produce silk parachutes. Production of durable goods tripled.
O.P.A. (1943)
The Office Price Administration combated inflation by fixing price ceilings on commodities and introducing rationing programs. Ration stamps were give out and proclamations and rules were issued.
Conservative coalition during the war
Southern Democrats and Republicans united to oppose New Deal philosophies.
Smith-Connaly Act
Also know as the War Labor Disputes Act, this June 1943 act allowed the President to seize and operate any strikebound plant deemed necessary to national security. A mandatory 30-day period was established between strikes. The NWLB was given the right to settle labor disputes during the war.
Election of 1944; candidates and issues
FDR was renominated and choose Harry S Truman to be his running mate. By now, FDR was sick and had poor health; this became a major issue. Roosevelt supported an Economic Bill of Rights. Republicans nominated NY governor Thomas E. Dewey, a moderate. Dewey did not want to repeal much of the New Deal and was hesitant to attack FDR’s foreign policy. However, Dewey’s short stature and dullness hurt his image. Roosevelt won 432 to 99 while carrying 53.4% of the popular vote.
Harry S Truman
Truman, a senator from Missouri, was chosen to be FDR’s running mate for Roosevelt’s fourth term. Truman had chaired a senatorial watchdog committee on favoritism and waste in defense contracts. Truman was a representative of the Pendergast machine in Kansas City and was approved by southerners, bosses, and liberals. However, he had little experience in world politics and was even uninformed about the atomic bomb. When Roosevelt died as WWII ended, Truman became President.
Additional Notes
Yalta Conference (1945) British Objectives (Churchill) 1. A place for France in occupied Germany 2. A curb to Soviet influence in Poland 3. Protection of the vulnerable British empire Soviet Objectives (Stalin) 1. Reparations from Germany for rebuilding 2. Possessions in Asia 3. Permanently weakened Germany 4. Continued influence in Poland American Objectives (Roosevelt) 1. United Nations Organization with U.S. influence 2. Soviet declaration of war against Japan 3. Recognition of China as a major power 4. Compromise between Polish Factions Military situation at time of conference Soviet troops occupied much of Eastern Europe Western Allies just won the Battle of the Bulge Japan was still resisting and occupied China, Manchuria, and Korea Decisions made at Yalta Poland 1. A boundary favorable towards Russia in the East 2. Postponement of Western boundary issue 3. Coalition government which would include government exiled in London 4. Free elections would be held 5. Soviet occupation- Soviets set up Gublin government Post-War Germany 1. Four zones, one to France 2. Consider $20 billion as reparations 3. Destroy German militarism and all vestiges of Nazism 4. Berlin divided into zones of occupation 5. Tribunal to try German war criminals Liberated Europe 1. Declaration of Liberated Europe- establish order, rebuild, economies by democratic methods 2. Allies ask for concessions, in no position to make demands 3. Churchill sees Poland as question of honor, Stalin as question of survival 4. Self-determination with free elections Russia and the war against Japan 1. Would declare war 2 to 3 months after Hitler’s defeat 2. Russians get concessions WWII Holocaust Most people do not want to help March 1941- Decide that Germans are priority German technology is most superior German army is superior and has invaded Russia Direct strategy, U.S. pushes for cross-channel invasion Churchill wants invasion through the Adriatic Sea December 1941- Germans and Japanese in charge December 11- Japan seizes Guam December 23- Japan seizes Wake Island December 25- Japan seizes Hong Kong February 1942- Japan seizes Singapore March 1942- Japan seizes Burma, Dutch East Indies, Philippines April 1942- Japan plans to seize Australia Home Front during the War 60 million Americans work on farms and in factories 16 million serve in the military Average salary increases from $1064 to $2600 a year for non-soldiers Shipping industry builds ships faster than the Germans can sink them Ford builds B-24 bombers (1 per hour) Kaiser built merchant ships (1 per 14 days) Donald Nelson selected to head War Production Board (1942) U.S. turns out twice as much as Germany and Japan James Byrnes- Office of Economic Stabilization (settles labor disputes) New Tax Program Revenue Act (1942)- withholding tax (take taxes out of paycheck) 1943- wages up 15% 1940-1945- Farm income quadrupled Lowest 1/5 of wage earners get 68% wage increase Highest 1/5 of wage earners get 20% wage increase People save money as products are expensive Rural areas lose population Housing shortage in urban areas Marriages and divorces increase Women in the workforce increase 1940- 14 million- 15% married 1945- 19 million- 25% married Blacks see limited gains Start of war- $457 End of war- $1976 1,000,000 blacks serve in the military, few see combat, segregated units mostly do construction, menial jobs, high-risk jobs 1941- Fair Employment Commission- Randolph 60,000 blacks in govt. contracted businesses to 200,000 by 1945 Migration of blacks to cities 250 race riots- worst in Detroit (25 blacks and 9 whites killed in 1943) Still much inequality Zoot Suit Riots (California) Japanese problem- Executive Order #9066 Relocate Japanese Lead by General DeWitt 48 hours to prepare for relocation 70,000 to 100,000 Japanese Supreme Court upholds Not compensated until 1980s (1988- $20,000 a person) 8,000 move to Japan after war Issei- foreign born Japanese-Americans Nisei- native born Japanese-Americans 1942 Elections- voter turn-out is low Republicans gain in House and Senate (worries Democrats) 1944 Elections FDR/Truman (a moderate) defeated Dewey (Republican Governor from New York) Sydney Hillman helped FDR carry the urban vote 1938- Anti-Semitic movement of Germans began 1933- Enabling Act- Jews started to leave 1939- St. Louis 1942- Government recognized the Holocaust 1944- Roosevelt sets up the War Refugee Board limit on number of Jews allowed to settle in Palestine Manhattan Project (1942)- Oppenheimer July 16, 1945- 1st test, enter Nuclear Age The War 1942- Allies Defended 1943-1944- Prepared Counter-Offensive 1944-1945- Germany and Japan fight for survival November 1942- Stalingrad- Hitler ordered army to stay and fight; same problems Napoleon had; Soviet winter; Soldiers still had summer uniforms; Hitler did not give them supplies; turning point on the Eastern front February 1943- Invasion of Italy Operation Avalanche- Montgomery Mussolini overthrown No unconditional surrender, just armistice Germans slow down Allies October 1943- Advance past Germans June 1944- Allies win Rome over Germans (June 4) D-Day (June 6)- Eisenhower leads Operation Overlord- Normandy 1,000,000 men landed August 1944- Operation Breakout- try to get to Paris Get in on August 25, 1944 Belgium, Holland, Luxembourg Battle of the Bulge October 1944- Germans behind Siegfried (defense) line November 1944- Russians let Germans slaughter Poles April 1945- Eisenhower, Patton, Bradley 1st death camps with people Can smell burning bodies for 50 miles- Ohrurdf camp 3,200 bodies discovered at camp Smell of death overwhelming Northauser- 700 survivors Soldiers throw-up because of smell