Terms
U.S. and the World Court
In 1923, President Harding proposed that the U.S. join the World Court. The World Court arbitrated on international law and presented its decision to the League of Nations. The Senate reluctantly agreed in 1926 when qualifiers to allow the U.S. to maintain absolute control of its own affairs was added. U.S. membership was denied because the World Court refused to accept the clause in which it would not consider questions in which the U.S. had an interest or claim. Franklin Roosevelt was unsuccessful in getting the U.S. to join in 1935. This U.S. policy showed that the country was still in a state of isolationism.
U.S. and the League of Nations
The U.S. was not a member, but unofficial observers were sent to meetings.
Washington Naval Conference: purpose and significance
In this 1921 conference, President Harding looked for disarmament. A Four-Power Treaty between the U.S., Great Britain, Japan, and France was created. Later, a Five-Power Treaty included Italy. Construction of big warships was ended for 10 years. Heavy warships between the powers were set at a ratio. A Nine-Power Treaty included Belgium, Portugal, the Netherlands, and China and supported the Open Door Policy in China. This conference just lead to an arms race. Since they could not build heavy warships, the powers created lighter craft such as destroyers, cruisers, and submarines.
Four Power, Five Power, and Nine Power Treaties
In the December 1921 Four-Power treaty, the United States, Great Britain, France, and Japan agreed to respect each other’s rights in the Pacific and help each other if another country threatened these rights. The February 1922 Five-Power treaty added Italy. The construction of big ships was ended for 10 years. The number of ships each power possessed was put in ratio to the other powers. The Nine-Power treaty added Belgium, Portugal, the Netherlands, and China. An Open-Door Policy in China was supported.
Kellogg-Briand Pact
This 1928 Pact was supported by Aristide Briand, the French Foreign Minister, and Frank Kellogg, the U.S. Secretary of State. It denounced war and called for peaceful settlement of disputes. The Pact was originally signed by 15 nations, but eventually, more than 60 nations signed. This pact was just a declaration and really did nothing.
Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act
This 1934 Act was proposed by Secretary of State Cordell Hull. This Act allowed the President to lower tariffs up to 50% on specific imports from specific nations as long as that nation lowered tariffs on American products. This Act was used to lower tariffs with 16 nations.
Reparations and War Debts
Allies dubbed the U.S. as "Uncle Shylock" for insisting that Allies pay back $12.5 billion in war debts. Germany was unable to pay the sum of $33 billion Allies demanded for reparations. A reparations commission was then established to study the reparation problem.
Dawes Plan; Young Plan
Charles G. Dawes, an American banker, created a play in which Germany would receive a mostly American loan of $200 million to stabilize its economy and would resume reparation payments. Under this plan, Germany paid $2 billion and the Allies returned $2.6 billion to the U.S. Owen D. Young’s plan reduced German reparations by $9 billion and called for 59 annual payments. After the stock market crash, Hoover suspended all war debt payments and the European countries defaulted.
U.S. Recognition of the USSR: reasons for
The United States had refused to recognize the USSR because of Communist propaganda which promoted Communist revolutions around the world. However, the U.S. recognized the USSR in 1933 in order to limit Japanese expansion in the Far East. The Soviet Union promised to discuss debts with the U.S., end propaganda efforts in the U.S., and protect the rights of Americans in the USSR. None of the terms of the deal were followed as the U.S. did not provide a large loan that the USSR had expected.
Good Neighbor policy
Previous American intervention in Caribbean problems had only created problems between the U.S. and Caribbean nations; therefore, Hoover adopted the Good Neighbor policy in which the U.S. would stay out of Caribbean affairs. This policy was an effort by the U.S. to heal strained Caribbean affairs.
Dwight Morrow; Mexico
The first test of the Good Neighbor policy came in Mexico. Mexico threatened to nationalize American oil and mining investments. Secretary of State Kellogg called for intervention, but was rejected. President Coolidge sent Morrow to Mexico to settle the dispute. Charles Lindbergh also visited Mexico. The U.S. conceded Mexico’s right to expropriate foreign holdings, but was able to hold some oil investments.
Clark Memorandum
This unofficial 1930 doctrine stated that the U.S. would only intervene in Latin America if the nation’s "self-preservation" was at stake. This document had the effect of repudiating the Monroe Doctrine and the Roosevelt Corollary.
Pan-American Conference, 1933
At this meeting, the U.S. signed a declaration opposing intervention in Latin American affairs. This effectively eliminated the Platt Amendment. This policy agreed with the Good Neighbor policy the U.S. was using.
Declaration of Panama, 1939
In this September declaration, President Roosevelt and the American republics declared a 300 mile safety zone in the Western Hemisphere. This would keep the Americas neutral during a European conflict with the Nazis. This declaration was useful in preventing Hitler from capturing Latin America.
Act of Havana, 1940
In this act, American foreign ministers agreed to a U.S. plan to take over French and Dutch colonies in the Western Hemisphere instead of allowing the Germans to conquer them. It also declared that an attack on a Western Hemisphere nation was an attack on all Western Hemisphere nations. This made the Monroe Doctrine multilateral. This act eventually pulled 18 Latin American nations into the war on the side of the U.S.
Trujillo, Somoza, Batista: U.S. relations with
Rafael Leonidas Trujillo, an officer of the U.S. trained Dominican National Guard, became the head of the national army in 1928 and the President of the Dominican Republic in 1930. He ruled until his assassination in 1961. General Anastasio Somoza of the Nicaraguan National Guard overthrew a Sandino government that had denounced the Monroe Doctrine. Somoza’s family ruled from 1936 to 1979 when they were overthrown. Fulgencio Batista of Cuba, overthrew the Gran government which had opposed the Platt Amendment. Batista ruled from 1934 to 1959. The U.S. created many dictatorships loyal to the U.S., but also made many enemies among the people of these countries.
Stimson Doctrine
This note was issued to Japan on January 7, 1932 by President Hoover. Secretary of State Stimson had advocated economic sanctions against Japan for the invasion of Manchuria. However, this note only stated that the United States would not recognized territorial changes in China that would impair American treaty rights or violate the Open Door Policy or Kellogg-Briand Pact. This doctrine did nothing as Japan invaded Shanghai three weeks later.
Nye Committee; "Merchants of Death" thesis
Gerald P. Nye headed a committee that investigated U.S. reasons for involvement in World War I. The investigation went on from 1934 to 1936. The committee found that American participation in World War I was caused by American bankers and munitions makers who would make money in war. This pushed more Americans toward neutrality. The committee’s findings have been found to be incorrect.
Spanish Civil War; U.S. response
This 1936 to 1939 war pitted the incumbent Loyalist Republicans (supported by the Soviet Union) against Francisco Franco’s Fascists (supported by Italy and Germany). France and Britain stayed neutral. 300,000 American volunteers known as the Lincoln Battalion fought on the Republican side. Franco’s Fascists won and seized power.
Neutrality Acts of 1935, 1936, and 1937: purpose and provisions of
The Neutrality Act of 1935 created an arms embargo against all belligerents during war. This would curb American war profiteering. The Neutrality Act of 1936 forbade loans to belligerents. Loans by the U.S. during WWI had not been paid back. The Neutrality Act of 1937 prohibited Americans from traveling on belligerent ships. When the President determined that a state of war existed, belligerent countries would have to pay cash for supplies and carry the supplies on their own ships. ("Cash and carry")
FDR’s "Quarantine" Speech (Oct. 27)
In this speech, President Roosevelt emphasized the need to "quarantine" the epidemic of world lawlessness. This speech took place in Chicago.
The Panay incident
In December 1937, Japan sunk the Panay, a U.S. gunboat. Two Americans were killed and 30 were wounded. Japan eventually apologized and paid $2 million.
Munich Conference; appeasement
In 1938, Hitler had seized Austria-Hungary and the Sudeten region of Czechoslovakia. At the September Munich Conference, Franco and Britain allowed the annexations. This appeasement failed as Hitler then took the rest of Czechoslovakia.
Invasion of Poland; "blitzkrieg"
Hitler planned to invade Poland using "blitzkrieg," a fast war strategy. Great Britain and France announced plans to help Poland, their ally. Germany and the Soviet Union the shocked the world by signing the Nazi-Soviet Pact and attacked Poland on September 1. Britain and France then declared war on Germany. World War II had begun.
Ludlow Resolution
This Referendum would have made it illegal for Congress to declare war unless a majority of people voted for it or the country had been invaded. This 1938 proposal was narrowly defeated.
"Isolationism"
This was U.S. policy as WWII began. Most Americans supported staying out of war to protect national interest. Most Americans believed that entering WWI had been a mistake. Conservatives feared higher taxes and increased federal taxes. Liberals wanted more emphasis place on domestic issues.
"Cash-and-Carry"
In this system, belligerent countries would have to pay for nonmilitary supplies in cash and bring the supplies back on their own ships.
"Destroyer-for-bases" deal
As the Battle of Britain was waged, President Roosevelt and Winston Churchill agreed that the U.S. would give Great Britain 50 WWI vintage destroyers in exchange for 99 year leases on eight naval base sites in Bermuda and the Caribbean. This was a presidential agreement and could not be vetoed by Congress.
Burke-Wadsworth Act
This September 1940 Act instituted the first ever peace-time draft. It also appropriated $37 billion to build up the American navy and airforce.
Election of 1940: candidates and issues
Republicans nominated Wendell Willkie, a former Democrat. Democrats renominated Roosevelt for an unprecedented 3rd term. Willkie attacked the New Deal’s wastefulness, called Roosevelt a "dictator," criticized Roosevelt’s decision to run for a 3rd term, and claimed that Roosevelt was pushing the U.S. into war. Roosevelt believed he needed a 3rd term because of the international crisis and said that no American boys would "be sent into any foreign wars." Roosevelt narrowly won the popular vote, but easily won the electoral vote.
American First Committee: views of Charles Lindbergh
This group supported the confining of American armed defense to the Western Hemisphere and neutrality in Europe. Supporters included Herbert Hoover, Charles Lindbergh, and Randolph Hearst.
Lend-Lease Act
This act was proposed by Roosevelt on December 29, 1940. It would appropriate $7 billion for war supplies and the President would be authorized to lend or lease these supplies. Isolationist critics included Senator Wheeler, Charles Lindbergh, and Charles Beard. However, many supported the bill, including Wendell Willkie. This bill was passed on March 11, 1941 and the U.S. eventually spent $54 billion.
"arsenal of democracy"
In President Roosevelt’s December 29, 1940 fireside chat to gain support for the Lend-Lease act, he said that the U.S. "must be the great arsenal of democracy." The U.S. was an industrial power and needed to protect democracy.
Atlantic Charter
This was the product of an August 1941 meeting between President Roosevelt and British Prime Minister Churchill. This eight-point document stated opposition to territorial expansion and supported self-determination, free trade, disarmament of aggressor nations, freedom of the seas, and a new system of collective security. It also supported "freedom from fear and want."
The Greer, Kearny, and Reuben James
In September 1941, a German submarine fired on the Greer, and American destroyer. The Greer had been tailing a German submarine, but Roosevelt did not mention this. Roosevelt took this chance to announce that American naval vessels would convoy British merchant ships to Iceland and would shoot German ships on sights. The Germans torpedoed the Kearny in October off the coast of Iceland. The Reuben James was torpedoed later that month. Congress then scrapped the cash-and-carry and allowed U.S. munitions shipments to England on armed merchant ships.
Pearl Harbor, December 7, 1941
On December 7, 350 Japanese planes traveled 3,000 miles to bomb Pearl Harbor. 2,400 Americans were killed as airfields, battleships, and aircraft were destroyed. The attack was completely unexpected. On December 8, Congress voted for war (Senate- unanimous; House- 388 to 1).
Additional Notes
Foreign Policy (1921-1941) Foreign Policy 1920s Isolationism Political relations at a bare minimum Economic expansion continues U.S. is creditor nation Global Investment Opportunities No regulation by State Department European economy was linked to U.S. Many investment opportunities for bankers and individuals Increase in production leads to search for increased markets High tariffs that destroy world trade and start depression Geopolitical Evolution (1920s) Far East- emergence of Japan (fastest to industrialize- 50 years) 1857-1907 to industrialize- won Russo-Japanese War in 1907 British and French influences in world weakened Russia and China weakened American political influence is a minor factor- Look for Open Door Policy Respect Trade Europe took everything from Germany and wanted reparations Weimar republic set up in Germany Rise of Dictatorships Mussolini (Italy), Stalin (Russia), Hitler (Germany) U.S. played insignificant role in European affairs No coordinated plan of foreign policy Hoover Beginning of coordination Hoover visits Latin America (1928) Alteration in “Big Stick” policy U.S. military force still occupies some small nations U.S. supports bad dictators who support American policy No further intervention under Hoover Difficulties with Mexico are resolved Clark Memorandum repudiated Roosevelt Corollary Monroe Doctrine viewed as multi-lateral, not uni-lateral Pan-American cooperation stressed Hoover’s policy lays basis for Roosevelt’s Good Neighbor Policy Asia- U.S. seeks to preserve Open Door Policy 1931- Japan threatens invasion of Manchuria Puppet government established by Japan shows worthlessness of Nine-Power Treaty, Kellog-Briand Pact, and League of Nations American response- refused to cooperate with League’s investigation Moralistic stand in condemning Japan Henry Stimson is Secretary of State- internationalist Hoover opposes initiative in Manchuria because of isolationism and the fact that the depression is worsening Stimson Doctrine- condemns Japanese aggression U.S. will not recognize lands Japan took Japan continues expansion- 1932- seized Shanghai League of Nations announces Japanese aggression- Japan leaves League Relations between U.S. and Europe dominated by economic collapse War debts and reparations are problems 1929- U.S. loans to Germans end as Stock Market crashes 1931- Hoover Moratorium- officially suspended debt payments to U.S. and reparation payments to allies; supposed to be for one year, ends up forever Gold standard abandoned Money only worth faith in government Effect of Depression: dominates American attention precludes involvement in foreign affairs Roosevelt’s Foreign Policy Political Isolationism- prevents major international role Domestic emphasized Never coherent or consistent approach to foreign affairs Resentment against foreign involvement 1934- Johnson Act- prohibited foreign governments in default to debts to U.S. to come back for money; forerunner of neutrality acts 1933- London Economic Conference get together to combat Depression (world leaders) reduce tariffs; Roosevelt sabotages (U.S. will not stabilize currency, will not cooperate); conference collapses Good Neighbor Policy (Latin America) Hemispherical Solidarity Montevideo Conference (1933) Secretary of State Hull signs agreements for U.S. to be non-interventional Sets precedents for similar agreements Other Conferences include Bueno Aires, Lima, Panama, and Havana Platt Amendment repealed 1934- Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act President can reduce tariff by up to 50% Cordell Hull- negotiates 30 of Reciprocal trade agreements (1933-1937) favor U.S. (get raw materials; market for industrial goods) U.S. is more and more involved in world affairs 1935- Mussolini invades Ethiopia- American response is to try to hold on to isolationism U.S. passes Neutrality Act of 1935 Prohibits arms sales to belligerents Treats attacker and victim equally Isolationists become weary of which path Roosevelt will take Nye Committee investigates role of manufacturers in WWI Sensational Public Test. shows financial involvement by House of Morgan in what occurred in WWI American war involvement was fore selfish, private interests Wilson pressured to protect U.S. loans; Wilson had provoked Germans- leads to other neutrality acts Reports on Ethiopia- There is no sign of cooperation by League to not trade with Italy Hull announces a moral embargo on ships to Italy- companies don’t care League sanctions rendered ineffective Covert U.S. diplomacy takes place Secretly supporting British to stop Italians No traveling on ships of belligerent nations Isolationists were needed for Roosevelt’s domestic reform- leads to lack of support for intervention (1936) 1937- Hitler has set up fascist state in Germany Spain- 1937-1939 dress rehearsal for WWII Spanish Civil War Spanish Republic leans to liberals and leftists Soviet Union provides arms and advisors to leftists (org. govt.) Franco and militarists supported by Germany and Italy German airforce important in leading Franco to victory British and French declare neutrality Pro-Franco in U.S. includes Roman-Catholic Church Neutrality Act of 1937- Americans can not travel on belligerent ships; cash and carry Public Opinion Poll- 94% favor isolationism; take no active involvement in effort to prevent wars Domestic Problems are priority Referendum (Ludlow Amendment)- Congress except for invasion could not declare war unless a majority of people voted for it; narrowly defeated (209-188) December 1937- Japan sinks Panay (U.S. gunboat), kills 2 Americans, 30 wounded; Japan apologizes and pays $2 million Japanese aggression in China continues Germany annexes Austria and takes Rhineland and Saar Basin Demands made on Czechoslovakia Munich Conference (1938) Chamberlain (Great Britain), Hitler, Mussolini, French Premier Discuss what to be done by Hitler’s move into Czechoslovakia Hitler gets Sudetenland Policy of giving in to bully tactics (appeasement) Hitler then takes Prague Roosevelt starts to take power Does not recognize Japan-China War Can send arms to China Quarentine Speech- need to quarentine the epidemic of world lawlessness 1939- U.S. changes foreign policy stand Foreign policy assumes dominance Global threats clear- Roosevelt believes U.S. is threatened Believed Hitler was unreasonable and understood danger Repealed Neutrality Act of 1937 urged Urged aid for Great Britain September 1- Germany attacked Poland September 3- Britain and France declare war on Germany Allies- Great Britain, France, U.S., U.S.S.R. Axis- Germany, Italy, Japan Hitler wants blitzkrieg, not sitzkrieg (slow war) September 5- U.S. proclaims neutrality Roosevelt gets pressure to not be involved Neutrality Act of 1939- allows sale of munitions on cash and carry permits short term loans 1940- Phony War- 7 months after invasion of Poland April- Germany invades Denmark and Norway May- Holland, Belgium, Luxembourg taken June- France invaded Summer- England prepares for German invasion Operation Sea Lion- German attempt to bring down British Germans bomb Britain from July to October Battle of Britain- ally name for attempt to thwart German bombing of Britain Britain and America begin secret cooperation with supplies The Destroyers for Bases Deal- 1940 (September) Executive agreement 50 American destroyers given to England U.S. gets 99 years lease on Britain bases in Western Hemisphere Britain will never surrender her fleet to Germany Roosevelt denounces Axis operations (September) Demands increase in defense appropriations Stimson is now Secretary of War Knox is Secretary of Navy 1st Peace Time draft (September) Burke-Wadsworth Act Smith Act forbids membership in organization that proposes violent overthrow of U.S. government Election of 1940 Roosevelt/Wallace (Democrats) Wallace had been Secretary of Agriculture Aggressive, controversial New Dealer Republican Candidates- Thomas Dewey- rejected by professionals because he was young and inexperienced Robert Taft- Ohio, son of former President, Conservative, isolationist Wendell Willkie- Indiana farmer, Wall Street executive, gained strength at convention because of others’ weaknesses, wins nomination McNary is Vice Presidential candidate (Oregon senator) America First Committee- isolationist pressure group, Midwesterners Hitler is no threat to us, includes Charles Lindbergh Committee to Defend America by Aiding the Allies- sought to arm allies, but not fight in war, William White, Robert Sherwood Willkie attacks Roosevelt’s foreign policy Attacks maneuver by Roosevelt to get into war Roosevelt claims no American boys will fight in foreign war 27 to 23 million for Roosevelt, 449 to 82 Norman Thomas- Socialist 3rd Babson- Prohibition 4th Communists- Browden 5th Aiken- workers 6th 1941- Lend-Lease Act (March) Gives President power to lend or lease equipment to any nation that is in need Over $50 billion spent during war- 60% to England, 22% to Soviets Roosevelt declares U.S. as "arsenal of democracy" Public denunciations of Germany Germany is a threat April- U.S. occupied Greenland May- Unlimited National Emergency July- U.S. occupied Iceland September- U.S.S. Greer attacked by Germans shoot on sight orders provide armed escorts for merchant ships going to Great Britain October- U.S.S. Reuben James sunk Did not officially recognize Soviet Union until 1933 Upset when USSR and Germany signed Non-Aggression Pact June 1941- Germany attacked Russia and broke Non-Aggression Pact Operation Barberosa August 1941- Roosevelt and Churchill meet on Augusta (Roosevelt) and Prince of Wales (Churchill) Atlantic Charter- joint declaration of closeness between US and Britain, principles that eventually are basis for UN December 8- Declaration of War after Pearl Harbor (December 7) Japanese “New Order” (1931) Premier Konoe, Foreign Minister Matsuaka, War Minister Tojo Emperor Hirohito Axis Power (1940) Economic Pressures on Japan U.S. support of Chiang-Kai Shek regime in China Hope for unified China to deal with Japan Economic pressures on Japan 1940- Begin rationing to Japan deny aviation gasoline and scrap iron Japan looks elsewhere for military supplies Negotiations unsuccessful Secretary of State Hull heads negotiations Insists on no Japanese expansion in China and French Indochina Vietnam, Cambodia U.S. freezes Japanese assets in U.S. Do not let them use Panama canal Embargo all oil Japanese demand end to U.S. aid to China and end of U.S. embargoes on Japan Konoe government falls to Tojo (New Premier) shortly before Pearl Harbor Tojo government negotiates up to day of Pearl Harbor Japanese code had been intercepted Americans assumed the attack would be at the Dutch East Indies , Malaya, or Philippines Pearl Harbor- massive destruction December 11- Germany and Italy declared war on the US