STUTTERING
Definition: Stuttering is a communication impairment characterized by excessive, involuntary disruptions in the rate, rhythm and forward flow of
 Speech.
Stuttering is characterized by specific primary speech behaviors, some
of which include :

1. Repetitions of sounds, words, parts of words and phrases, i.e. ("ca-ca-ca-mel

            or p-p-pot"]

1. Prolongations of sounds, i.e. (ssssssnake)
2. Interjections, i.e. (uh, um)
3. Substitutions of weak vowel (buh-buh-bicycle)
4. Silent pauses
5. Blocks - Visible signs of struggle and tension when a child blocks on a word

            (eg. Squeezing eyes shut, rapid blinking, distorting the position of the mouth,
tongue or jaw)

Stuttering may also be characterized by secondary behaviours
( movement of different body parts)

1. Foot stamping
2. Trunk twisting
3. Hand slapping
4. Eye- blinking
5. Head jerking
6. Facial grimacing
7. Fingers snapping
8. Grunting

Stutters may escape or use avoidance behavior, i.e. telephone calls,
avoiding words beginning with certain sounds

It is important to distinguish between stuttering and
normal disfluency.

normal disfluency : Young children develop more complex speech and
language skills. They tend to repeat words and phrases. Their speech may be
characterized by many "emts" and "uh's" while they are busy formulating a
sentence.

Causes
Research has shown that stuttering could be related to a group of factors
namely:

Genetic

Stuttering tends to run in families
Gender factors appear to be related to family history.
Males run a higher risk than females to stutter (ratio. 3: 1)

Enviromental

 Stress related situations increase disinfluences in people who stutter.

Language

Syntactic complexity increases stuttering in young children, but have a
diminished effect on stuttering in adolescence.

 Psychological

Anxiety / stress increase stuttering moments
One or several of these factors may be present in any given individual

degree of stuitering

Stuttering changes and the changes are largely dependant on the age of the
person who stutters. The development of stuttering can be divided into four'
Levels:

1. Borderline stuttering (2 - 4 yrs)
2. Beginning stuttering (4 - 6 yrs)
3. Intermediate stuttering (6 - 13 yrs)
4. Advanced stuttering (13 yrs - adult)

 Border line stuttering(2 - 4 yrs)

 The children lack control of their speech and more disfluent symptoms occur
than normal disinfluences. Although the children rarely react to the disfluency a
degree of tension may be present. Borderline stutters seldom have secondary
behaviors.

 Beginning stuttering (4 - 6 yrs)

 Typical beginning stutters present with more stuttering moments and may use
secondary behaviors to cope. Although symptoms and signs may come and go,
the children are less tolerant of their disinfluences.

 Intermediate stuttering (6 -13 yrs)

Intermediate stutters start to fear stuttering moments. They react to fear by
avoiding it. They also develop escape and secondary behaviors.

 Advanced stuttering (13 yrs - adult)

Stuttering and avoidance behaviors increase in complexity and intensity. Strong
emotions of fear, embarrassment and shame exist. They have established
negative feelings about themselves.

 Factors that aggravate stuttering

1. Ongoing stress in the home, eg.  Parents fighting / divorce.
2. Things that increase anxiety eg. Afraid of the dark
3. Creating of unrealistic expectations.
4. Pressurizing the child in social situations eg. forcing him to talk with

      people/relatives.

Can stuttering be cured?

The answer to this question is both YES and NO. The developmental stage of
stuttering often determines the degree of treatment needed and the outcome.
Often stuttering "cures" itself as in the case of normal disfluency.
Borderline stutters begin to stutter, but often recover without treatment.
For some Borderline- and Beginning stutters early intervention is needed to
nurture their normal fluency development and to prevent the development of
more serious problems ..
Once stuttering has taken hold and many secondary behaviors are present, a
concentrated treatment effort during pre-school and early primary school .
is essential. Early intervention may leave a child with little or no trace of.
stuttering.
Most stutters who are treated after puberty will only make a partial recovery .
Treatment for these advanced stutters usually focuses on teaching them
coping skills.

Guidelines for the classroom

Don't use the word stuttering, unless the learner who stutters uses that word .
to describe his / her own speech.'
Don't say "Think before you speak", "take a deep breath", "stop and start .
over: or "just relax".
Have patience, keep eye contact - let the learner complete what he / she is .saying.
Don't fill in words or supply answers.
Model slow speech.  A slower speech rate can have a positive influence on
the entire class.
A predictable and organized class. This helps the learner not to worry
about what will happen next.  
Remember: stuttering is a speaking problem not an intelligence problem.
Allow the learner time to get his thoughts expressed, regardless of his
repetitions and revisions.
Look at the learner when he is talking to you.
Demonstrate interest in what he is saying , not how he is saying it.,
Keep the learner interested in talking by making speech fun and rewarding.
Use songs and rhymes.
Minimize stress and anxiety provoking situations at school and at home.
Become aware of any patterns or circumstances that seem related to a child's
stuttering and modify if possible,
Covey understanding, acceptance and reassurance.
Seek professional help or advice whenever you are concerned about a
stuttering learner.
Do not finish a sentence or word for him/her because you know what he/she is trying to say.
Don't give the impression that you are alarmed or disappointed because of
his stuttering.
Don't force a learner to speak or recite before strangers or visitors . .
Don't point out to the learner that he is stuttering or tell him to stop  stuttering.
Don't suggest that the learner substitute an "easy" word for a word he is
having trouble saying .
Don't let stuttering become an excuse to avoid responsibilities.
Don't allow anyone to tease or mock a learner about his stuttering.
Your attitude should accept his tries and retries to speak correctly and
Support / help his attempts.
Children should rest and sleep enough. They tend to stutter more when tired.
Never ask a child to imitate things or say things over again.
Don't interrupt the stutter.
If you are busy and cannot give your full attention, tell your learner that you
will listen to him when you are finished.
If the learner is trying to tell you something exciting, try to distract him to let
him calm down,  suggest that he has a cold drink or that you need him to"
sit down before he explains what happened.